山西五台山高山林线的植被景观

 过草本植物群落的分类和排序,结合对乔木和灌木分布的分析,确定了五台山高山林线的几条植被界线以及五台山森林上限附近植被的性质。结果表明：1）阳坡林线的海拔范围为2 605～2 790 m,阴坡林线的海拔范围为2 810～3 015 m;2）草本植物群落随海拔高度的变化比较明显,阴坡和阳坡从郁闭林到山顶均依次分布林下草本层、林缘草甸、亚高山灌丛草甸、高山草甸,草本植物的分布很好地体现了林线内部景观的差异性;3）海拔高度是高山林线附近草本植物群落空间分异的决定性因素。     

Relationships between expanding pinyon–juniper cover and topography in the central Great Basin, Nevada

Aim Increasing geographical range and density of conifers is a major form of land‐cover change in the western United States, affecting fire frequency, biogeochemistry and possibly biodiversity. However, the extent and magnitude of the change are uncertain. This study aimed to quantify the relationship between changing conifer cover and topography. Location The central Great Basin in the state of Nevada, USA. Methods We used a series of Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite images from 1986, 1995 and 2005 to map change in pinyon–juniper woodlands (Pinus monophylla, Juniperus spp.) in the montane central Great Basin of Nevada. We derived fractional greenness for each year using spectral mixture analysis and identified all areas with an above average increase in greenness from 1986 to 1995 and 1995 to 2005. Results Areas with high fractional greenness in 2005 were most likely to occur at elevations between 2200 and 2600 m a.s.l. Increases in fractional greenness between 1986 and 2005 were most likely to occur at elevations below 2000 m a.s.l. and on south‐facing slopes. However, relationships between elevation and increasing greenness for individual mountain ranges varied considerably from the average trend. Fractional greenness values measured by Landsat suggest that the majority of pinyon–juniper woodlands have not reached their maximum potential tree cover. Main conclusions Expansion of pinyon–juniper at low elevations and on south‐facing slopes probably reflects increasing precipitation in the 20th century, higher water use efficiency caused by increasing atmospheric CO₂ in the late 20th century and livestock grazing at the interface between shrubland and woodland. Identification of the spatial relationships between changing fractional greenness of pinyon–juniper woodland and topography can inform regional land management and improve projections of long‐term ecosystem change.     

Evidence for host race formation in the leaf beetle Galerucella lineola

We examined preference and performance of four Finnish Galerucella lineola F. populations on alder and willow. In standardized two‐choice laboratory feeding trials with alder and willow, only two naturally alder‐associated G. lineola populations accepted alder. Two conspecific willow‐associated populations preferred willow. These preferences seem to be unstable, however, because they can be modified by the beetles’ experience. Thus, there probably is not a complete host preference‐based isolation of alder‐ and willow‐associated G. lineola beetles in nature. In performance experiments, larvae of all four populations survived better on willow than on alder. This may indicate that willows are the ancestral hosts for G. lineola. Nevertheless, larvae of the two alder‐associated G. lineola populations survived better on alder than larvae of the two willow‐associated populations. On the other hand, larvae of the two willow‐associated populations survived better on willow than larvae of the two alder‐associated populations. This performance trade‐off suggests that G. lineola encounters different selective pressures on alders and willows. On both of them, selection probably disfavours those G. lineola genotypes that are the most successful and abundant on alternative hosts. This may reduce the effects of gene flow that is likely to occur as a consequence of incomplete host preference‐based isolation of alder‐ and willow‐associated G. lineola populations. Data from pupal weights support the idea that alder‐ and willow‐associated G. lineola populations may be genetically differentiated. Pupae of the two alder‐associated populations were heavier than those of the willow‐associated populations irrespective of whether larvae had fed on alder or on willow. Overall, our results indicate host race formation in G. lineola. This process may be enforced by the variable abundance of alders and willows in local communities.     

The role of environmental gradients in non-native plant invasion into burnt areas of Yosemite National Park, California

Fire is known to facilitate the invasion of many non-native plant species, but how invasion into burnt areas varies along environmental gradients is not well-understood. We used two pre-existing data sets to analyse patterns of invasion by non-native plant species into burnt areas along gradients of topography, soil and vegetation structure in Yosemite National Park, California, USA. A total of 46 non-native species (all herbaceous) were recorded in the two data sets. They occurred in all seven of the major plant formations in the park, but were least common in subalpine and upper montane conifer forests. There was no significant difference in species richness or cover of non-natives between burnt and unburnt areas for either data set, and environmental gradients had a stronger effect on patterns of non-native species distribution, abundance and species composition than burning. Cover and species richness of non-natives had significant positive correlations with slope (steepness) and herbaceous cover, while species richness had significant negative correlations with elevation, the number of years post-burn, and cover of woody vegetation. Non-native species comprised a relatively minor component of the vegetation in both burnt and unburnt areas in Yosemite (percentage species = 4%, mean cover < 6.0%), and those species that did occur in burnt areas tended not to persist over time. The results indicate that in many western montane ecosystems, fire alone will not necessarily result in increased rates of invasion into burnt areas. However, it would be premature to conclude that non-native species could not affect post-fire succession patterns in these systems. Short fire-return intervals and high fire severity coupled with increased propagule pressure from areas used heavily by humans could still lead to high rates of invasion, establishment and spread even in highly protected areas such as Yosemite.     

Spatial distribution and temporal dynamics of high‐elevation forest stands in southern Siberia

Aim To evaluate the hypothesis that topographic features of high‐elevation mountain environments govern spatial distribution and climate‐driven dynamics of the forest. Location Upper mountain forest stands (elevation range 1800–2600 m) in the mountains of southern Siberia. Methods Archive maps, satellite and on‐ground data from1960 to 2002 were used. Data were normalized to avoid bias caused by uneven distribution of topographic features (elevation, azimuth and slope steepness) within the analysed area. Spatial distribution of forest stands was analysed with respect to topography based on a digital elevation model (DEM). Results Spatial patterns in mountain forests are anisotropic with respect to azimuth, slope steepness and elevation. At a given elevation, the majority of forests occupied slopes with greater than mean slope values. As the elevation increased, forests shifted to steeper slopes. The orientation of forest azimuth distribution changed clockwise with increase in elevation (the total shift was 120°), indicating a combined effect of wind and water stress on the observed forest patterns. Warming caused changes in the forest distribution patterns during the last four decades. The area of closed forests increased 1.5 times, which was attributed to increased stand density and tree migration. The migration rate was 1.5 ± 0.9 m year^–1, causing a mean forest line shift of 63 ± 37 m. Along with upward migration, downward tree migration onto hill slopes was observed. Changes in tree morphology were also noted as widespread transformation of the prostrate forms of Siberian pine and larch into erect forms. Main conclusions The spatial pattern of upper mountain forests as well as the response of forests to warming strongly depends on topographic relief features (elevation, azimuth and slope steepness). With elevation increase (and thus a harsher environment) forests shifted to steep wind‐protected slopes. A considerable increase in the stand area and increased elevation of the upper forest line was observed coincident with the climate warming that was observed. Warming promotes migration of trees to areas that are less protected from winter desiccation and snow abrasion (i.e. areas with lower values of slope steepness). Climate‐induced forest response has significantly modified the spatial patterns of high‐elevation forests in southern Siberia during the last four decades, as well as tree morphology.     

Montane outcrop vegetation of Banks Peninsula, South Island, New Zealand

Species composition patterns and vegetation?environment relationships were quantified for montane volcanic outcrops on Banks Peninsula. The flora of these habitat islands comprises 346 vascular plant species including 82 exotic species and 52 species that are nationally rare, regionally rare, or regional endemics. Both MDS ordination analysis and TWINSPAN results illustrated the high compositional and environmental heterogeneity across the outcrops. Multi-dimensional scaling revealed that primary environmental factors related to community composition comprise both regional-scale gradients of altitude and outcrop-scale gradients of slope steepness, soil pH, area available to plants, maximum vegetation height, and the percentage of the surrounding vegetation that is forest. Accordingly, TWINSPAN separated four outcrop communities that occur on steeper slopes, have less fertile soils and tend not to face north from three outcrop communities that have shallower slopes, more fertile soils and tend to face north. Types in the first group are more likely to be bordered by forest or taller shrublands, whereas those in the second group occur on outcrops primarily bordered by grasslands and support more exotic species. Within these broader groups, communities differ in their altitude and the size, soil depth and shading of the outcrops on which they occur. We describe the vegetation of the seven communities; this ranges from predominance of stunted trees and taller statured species such as Podocarpus hallii and Phormium cookianum to vegetation of shrubby species such as Heliohebe lavaudiana and Hebe strictissima, to short vegetation of native woodland and grassland species such as Polystichum vestitum and Rytidosperma corinum, to exotic pasture of clovers and exotic grasses. The percentage of species on an outcrop face that are exotic is well modelled by site factors, with exotics increasing as the surrounding matrix becomes more disturbed, slopes become more gentle, the percentage of shade on the outcrop decreases, and soil fertility increases. In contrast, nearby disturbance has little influence on the percentage or number of species that are rare on an outcrop face; rather rare species richness is more strongly related to outcrop area and lack of shade, echoing patterns observed for rare outcrop species elsewhere in the world. These results highlight the importance of considering the high compositional heterogeneity among outcrops and the influence of disturbance to surrounding ecosystems in guiding conservation planning.     

Species richness and phylogenetic diversity of seed plants across vegetation zones of Mount Kenya,East Africa

Mount Kenya is of ecological importance in tropical east Africa due to the dramatic gradient in vegetation types that can be observed from low to high elevation zones. However, species richness and phylogenetic diversity of this mountain have not been well studied. Here, we surveyed distribution patterns for a total of 1,335 seed plants of this mountain and calculated species richness and phylogenetic diversity across seven vegetation zones. We also measured phylogenetic structure using the net relatedness index (NRI) and the nearest species index (NTI). Our results show that lower montane wet forest has the highest level of species richness, density, and phylogenetic diversity of woody plants, while lower montane dry forest has the highest level of species richness, density, and phylogenetic diversity in herbaceous plants. In total plants, NRI and NTI of four forest zones were smaller than three alpine zones. In woody plants, lower montane wet forest and upper montane forest have overdispersed phylogenetic structures. In herbaceous plants, NRI of Afro‐alpine zone and nival zone are smaller than those of bamboo zone, upper montane forest, and heath zone. We suggest that compared to open dry forest, humid forest has fewer herbaceous plants because of the closed canopy of woody plants. Woody plants may have climate‐dominated niches, whereas herbaceous plants may have edaphic and microhabitat‐dominated niches. We also proposed lower and upper montane forests with high species richness or overdispersed phylogenetic structures as the priority areas in conservation of Mount Kenya and other high mountains in the Eastern Afro‐montane biodiversity hotspot regions.     

Spatial variation in diurnal surface temperatures and the distribution and abundance of an alpine grasshopper

We studied the influence of spatial differences in diurnal surface temperatures due to topography on an alpine grasshopper (Aeropedellus clavatus). Temperature measurements on east-and west-facing alpine dry meadow slopes on Niwot Ridge in Colorado demonstrated a significant difference in diurnal surface temperatures between the two slopes throughout the growing season. A. clavatus body temperature was found to be highly correlated with nearby shaded surface temperature, and individual grasshoppers enclosed on the two slopes had significantly higher relative growth rates on the warmer east slope. Temperature effects were manifest at the population level as well. A. clavatus was significantly more abundant on the east-facing than on the west-facing slope, despite similar vegetation in both areas. This study contributes to our understanding of the myriad of factors governing insect distribution and abundance by attempting to integrate the physiological and ecological, abiotic and biotic, influences on both individuals and populations.     

西双版纳的四籽柳群落

四籽柳群落是西双版纳山地沟谷常绿阔叶林的一种特殊类型,该群落结构简单,分层明显,林相相对整齐,虽有落叶现象,但季相变化不明显。上层树种以四籽柳占优势,形成单优势的四籽柳群落;幼灌层种类较少,不发达;草本层种类较多,但无明显优势种类;无大型木质藤本;大型附生植物不发达,但树干上有较多的苔藓附生植物。该群落是在云南南部山区特定的气候、特殊的立地、加上充分的水湿条件及适宜的土壤下发育形成的一种单优势的群落类型。该群落虽然有一定的四籽柳的预备种群,但缺乏更新苗,它是一种相对稳定并具有一定次生性的群落类型。     

Adaptive spatiotemporal distribution of soil microfungi in 'Evolution Canyon' II, Lower Nahal Keziv, western Upper Galilee, Israel

We describe and interpret spatiotemporal micromycete community structure and adaptive complexes in contrasting xeric and mesic microclimates in the soils of 'Evolution Canyon' II, Lower Nahal Keziv, western Upper Galilee, Israel. A total of 192 species from 60 genera belonging to Zygomycota (nine species), Ascomycota (13 species), and mitosporic fungi (170 species) were isolated. The fungal communities on the south-facing, xeric, 'African' slope (AS) demonstrated significantly greater diversity than on the north-facing, mesic, 'European' slope (ES) and the valley bottom (VB). Seasonally, winter slope communities were less heterogeneous. Forest localities on the ES and the VB in all seasons and the shady localities on the AS in the winter were overwhelmingly dominated by mesophilic Penicillium species. The sunny locality on the AS was characterized by a dominance of melanin-containing micromycetes that was most pronounced in the summer and by high occurrence and abundance of thermotolerant and thermophilic Aspergillus and Fusarium species. Ascomycetes and zygomycetes were the minor components in all local mycobiota studied; sexual ascomycetes, being stress-selected fungi, were more than ten times more abundant in the soil of the AS than in that of the ES, with the peak of abundance in the sunny summer community. The results demonstrated a microscale adaptive spatiotemporal inter- and intraslope divergence in soil mycobiota structure. Microclimatic natural selection appears to be the major factor affecting soil fungus diversity patterns.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London . Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2003, 78, 527–539.     

Abundance and habitat relationships of breeding birds in the Sky Islands and adjacent Sierra Madre Occidental of northwest Mexico

The Sierra Madre Occidental and neighboring Madrean Sky Islands span a large and biologically diverse region of northwest Mexico and portions of the southwestern United States. Little is known about the abundance and habitat use of breeding birds in this region of Mexico, but such information is important for guiding conservation and management. We assessed densities and habitat relationships of breeding birds across Sky Island mountain ranges in Mexico and adjacent portions of the Sierra Madre from 2009 to 2012. We estimated densities at multiple spatial scales, assessed variation in densities among all major montane vegetation communities, and identified and estimated the effects of important habitat attributes on local densities. Regional density estimates of 65% of 72 focal species varied significantly among eight montane vegetation communities that ranged from oak savannah and woodland at low elevations to pine and mixed‐conifer forest at high elevations. Greater proportions of species occurred at peak densities or were relatively restricted to mixed‐conifer forest and montane riparian vegetation likely because of higher levels of structural or floristic diversity in those communities, but those species were typically rare or uncommon in the Sky Islands. Fewer species had peak densities in oak and pine‐oak woodland, and species associated with those communities were often more abundant across the region. Habitat models often included the effects of broadleaf deciduous vegetation cover (30% of species), which, together with tree density and fire severity, had positive effects on densities and suggest ways for managers to augment and conserve populations. Such patterns combined with greater threats to high‐elevation conifer forest and riparian areas underscore their value for conservation. Significant populations of many breeding bird species, including some that are of concern or were not known to occur regionally or in mountain ranges we surveyed, highlight the importance of conservation efforts in this area of Mexico.     

Phylogeny and quaternary history of the European montane/alpine endemic Soldanella (Primulaceae) based on ITS and AFLP variation

Soldanella contains 16 species of herbaceous perennials that are endemic to the central and south European high mountains. The genus is ecogeographically subdivided into forest/montane and alpine species. Evolutionary relationships and large-scale biogeographic patterns were inferred from parsimony analyses of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA, and genetic distance analyses based on amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. The ITS region proved useful for examining subgeneric relationships and testing hypotheses on genus-wide divergence times, whereas the AFLP markers were suitable for studying relationships among closely related taxa and biogeographic patterns of divergence. Neither ITS nor AFLP data supported sectional delimitations, particularly those related to the grouping of S. alpina (sect. Soldanella) with S. pusilla (sect. Tubiflores), which may be the result of hybridization. Additional results and conclusions drawn are (1) Soldanella is derived from an ancestor of Asian origin with a montane ecology; (2) estimates of divergence times suggest a late Quaternary origin of the genus; (3) alpine species of sect. Tubiflores diverged from within a paraphyletic sect. Soldanella of mainly montane species; (4) alpine and montane species of Soldanella experienced different cycles of range expansion and contraction during late Quaternary climatic changes, resulting in differential patterns of geographic distribution; and (5) AFLP divergence among montane species from eastern Europe was lower than between alpine species; we hypothesize that the latter differentiated in allopatric regions of expansion during glacials, while the former experienced secondary contact at lower elevations in more southern refugia.     

甘南高寒草甸群落的物种-多度关系沿坡向的变化

物种-多度格局研究是揭示群落组织结构和物种区域分布规律的重要手段。该研究以青藏高原东北部的甘南高寒草甸为研究对象, 基于野外调查和室内分析, 研究了不同坡向的环境因子、植物群落分布, 并利用RAD软件程序包对其进行了拟合分析。结果显示: 在南坡-北坡上, 土壤含水量从南坡(0.18 g·g ^-1)到北坡(0.31 g·g ^-1)呈现递增的趋势, 土壤温度从南坡(22.33 ℃)到北坡(18.13 ℃)以及光照强度从南坡(744.15 lx)到北坡(681.93 lx)均呈逐渐减小的趋势。物种-多度分布曲线的斜率从南坡向北坡依次减小。随着坡向由南向北转变, 物种-多度和物种多样性都呈递增的趋势。通过6个模型对坡向梯度的物种-多度分布进行拟合发现, 甘南高寒草甸区的物种-多度分布主要是以生态位模型为主, 其次是随机分布模型。青藏高原高寒草甸微生境梯度上的物种在总体上的资源分配模式是以固定分配模式为主, 稀有种的资源分配模式是以随机性模型为主, 常见种的资源分配模式则是以确定性模型为主。     

Effects of topographic and edaphic conditions on alpine plant species distribution along a slope gradient on Mount Norikura,central Japan

This study examined the effects of topographic and edaphic conditions on alpine plant species distribution along a slope gradient on Mt. Norikura (3026 m a.s.l.), central Japan. Topographic and edaphic factors investigated at 40 plots were: slope inclination, ground surface texture, soil water content and soil inorganic nitrogen concentration (NO₃-N, NH₄-N). The topographic and edaphic factors changed with slope positions: slope inclination was steeper, soil texture was coarser, and soil water and inorganic nitrogen concentration decreased with increasing slope position. Five vegetation types were located along the slope gradient and related to two factor-groups: (1) changes in soil water, NH₄-N, slope inclination along the slope gradient, and (2) ground surface texture. A tall herbaceous plant community developed at the low slope position, near tarns, with fine soil surface texture, high soil water and NH₄-N, while Dicentra peregrina dominated on an unstable rubble slope near the ridge top. The distribution of each species was predictable from the two factor-groups. Although the five vegetation types were related to the two factor-groups, responses to the two factor-groups differed among species, even within the same vegetation type. Therefore, this study showed that the topography of the terrain largely regulated alpine plant distribution by affecting edaphic conditions, and that global warming may alter species composition by changing edaphic conditions.     

Microtopography and distribution of canopy trees in a subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest in the northern part of Okinawa Island,Japan

The spatial distribution of trees in relation to topography was investigated using two topographic indices, slope steepness and slope configuration, in a 4-ha plot in a subtropical evergreen forest in the northern part of Okinawa Island, Japan. Most species showed an aggregated distribution and patch size was related to various microtopographical features, including small ridges and valleys. In a cluster analysis based on the dissimilarity of each species distribution, the species were divided into three major clusters. A significant correlation between the dissimilarity and the distance between each species on the axis of the two topographic indices indicated that species association was, in part, explained by the topographic indices. I suggest that species distributed on steep and concave slopes regenerate depending on disturbances such as landslides on unstable topography, whereas species distributed on ridges and upper slopes regenerate depending on the canopy gap. A number of species that were less abundant in the 4-ha plot occurred in the riparian area near a stream, where the density of more abundant species was low. The results of this study support the existence of habitat niche divergence related to topography in a subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest.     

滇南勐宋热带山地雨林的物种多样性与生态学特征

 研究了鲜为人知的滇南勐宋地区的原始山地雨林植被, 根据分布生境、群落结构和种类组成特征,可将该山地雨林区分为沟谷和山坡两个类型, 分别定义为八蕊单室茱萸(Mastixia euonymoides)-大萼楠(Phoebe megacalyx)林和云南拟单性木兰(Parachmeria yunnanensis)-云南裸花(Gymnanthes remota)林。该山地雨林的外貌仍以单叶、革质、全缘、中叶为主的常绿中、小高位芽植物组成为特征,层间木质藤本植物仍较丰富,草本高位芽植物和附生植物丰富,但板根和茎花现象少见,属于热带山地垂直带上低山雨林或山地雨林植被类型。与该地区的典型热带季节雨林和赤道热带雨林相比, 勐宋的山地雨林群落中的大、中高位芽植物和藤本高位芽植物比例相对减少, 小、矮高位芽植物和草本高位芽植物比例相对增加,单叶、革质、非全缘叶和小叶比例相对增加,板根现象少见。与中国热带北缘-南亚热带地区（季风）常绿阔叶林比较, 勐宋的山地雨林有较多的附生植物和草本高位芽植物,相对较少的小高位芽植物和矮高位芽植物,小叶比例亦较少,非全缘叶和革质叶比例相对较低。故勐宋山地雨林是滇南热带北缘山地的一种较湿润生境的植被类型, 与所谓的季风常绿阔叶林不同。在物种多样性上,勐宋热带山地雨林在单位面积植物种数上并不比该地区的热带季节雨林低, 物种多样性指数与低丘季节雨林相当,比沟谷季节雨林低, 明显高于季风常绿阔叶林。     

Occurrence and distribution of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal species in three types of grassland community of the Tibetan Plateau

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal spore communities and distribution patterns were surveyed in montane scrub grassland, alpine steppe, and alpine meadow sites at altitudes ranging from 3,500 to 5,200 m a.s.l. on the Tibetan Plateau. Thirty-two representative soil samples were collected from the root zone of the dominant and common plant species in late May 2004. Twenty-three AM fungal species representing six genera (Acaulospora, Entrophospora, Glomus, Pacispora, Paraglomus, and Scutellospora) were detected and species richness varied from 5.3 ± 0.8 to 10.5 ± 2.5 per site. Some AM fungal species were restricted to one vegetation type and Glomus mosseae, Glomus intraradices, and Scutellospora calospora were detected in all three vegetation types. Glomus species were found to be the most frequent and abundant in all three vegetation types. Acaulospora occurred mostly in the alpine steppe and alpine meadow. Scutellospora occurred mostly in montane scrub grassland. At the species level, Glomus mosseae was dominant in the montane scrub, Acaulospora laevis and Pacispora scintillans were dominant in the alpine steppe, and Acaulospora laevis, Pacispora scintillans, and Glomus claroideum dominated the alpine meadow. It was evident from the distribution pattern of AM fungi in the different vegetation types that the abundance and diversity of AM fungal species were lowest in the montane scrub grassland than the other two plant communities. Climatic conditions, especially temperatures, and intensity of land use may be the most important factors influencing the AM fungal community.     

退化中的长白山西坡灌木苔原优势种分布差异

长白山苔原带植被正在发生显著变化,灌木苔原中灌木植物分布范围萎缩,重要值下降。通过样方调查数据,分析灌木苔原中优势种的变化,灌木分布格局和灌木群落结构特征沿海拔的差异,旨在揭示长白山灌木苔原退化的区域差异,为明确其退化机理提供基础数据。研究表明:(1)长白山西坡灌木苔原退化严重,多种草本植物已经侵入,并成为优势种。目前7个优势种中灌木仅占2席,草本植物占据5席,与1979年的样方调查结果相比灌木优势种的数量和地位都明显下降。7个优势种均为聚集分布,各优势种分布呈现斑块化、分离化,统一的灌木苔原面临解体;大部分灌木苔原群落中,出现了草本层,苔原带下部灌木苔原中草本层高于灌木层,物种组成和群落形态接近草木苔原。(2)灌木在各海拔均仍有广泛分布,但其空间分布格局明显不同。在海拔2300m以下,灌木的分布产生较强的聚集现象,特别是在海拔2100m以下这种聚集分布现象更为突出;在海拔2300m以上灌木的聚集程度较弱。(3)长白山西坡灌木苔原退化的区域分异明显,在海拔2100m以下灌木苔原退化严重,成为草-灌苔原;在海拔2100—2300m之间,灌木苔原退化较严重,成为灌-草苔原;在海拔2300m以上,退化较轻,仍为灌木苔原。由此推断,长白山西坡灌木苔原的退化机理应包括两个方面:草本植物入侵,种间竞争导致灌木退化,以及环境变化导致灌木退化,二者皆可能是全球气候变化的结果。     

Species diversity of freshwater hyphomycetes in some streams of Pakistan. III. Autumnal colonization of freshwater hyphomycetes on bait leaves

Significantly more species of freshwater hyphomycetes colonized bait leaves of alder (16 species) and willow (14 species) during early submersion period (1 wk) than those of oak (8 species). Production of conidia was also higher on alder and willow leaves than on oak leaves. Higher amounts of dry mass were lost from the alder (28.6%) and willow leaves (29.4%) than from the oak leaves (18.7%). Rapid loss of dry mass was accompanied by rapid development of a fungal community. Fungal species took a longer time (6 wk) to reach their peak of occurrence on oak than on willow and alder leaves (3–4 wk).Flagellospora curvula dominated the assemblages of freshwater hyphomycetes on alder and willow leaves, andLunulospora curvula dominated the assemblage on oak leaves. The freshwater hyphomycete community showed higher values of species diversity (H value) on oak leaves than on alder and willow leaves.