Localised biological corrosion of X52 steel exposed within sea water pipelines

Abstract

A study of microbiologically induced corrosion has been conducted on X52 pipeline steel using bioelements which were located in a bioprobe located at the inner surface of a sea water pipeline and exposed for 60 days. Severely attacked surfaces with pits of various diameters and depths and a great deal of metal loss were observed after removing the biofilm that had deposited on the bioelement surfaces. This behaviour was not expected under the normal operating conditions of the pipeline. Pit depths were measured and a depth distribution curve was obtained. Different aerobic or facultative bacteria types were cultured from the biofilm removed from the X52 steel bioelement surface while a negative growth in the anaerobic bacteria culture was observed. The morphological and chemical characteristics of the aerobic bacteria were determined and results based on 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity suggest that these aerobic or facultative bacteria could be a new species in this kind of environment.     

New strain of anaerobic bacteria and its association with corrosion pitting of X52 pipeline steel

Abstract

Studies of microbiologically induced corrosion have been carried out in connection with sea water pipelines used in the oil fields of the Southern Region of Mexico. The bacteria used in the studies were obtained from a sea water pipeline belonging to a secondary oil recovery system and were grown in an API RP 38 liquid medium. The morphological and chemical characteristics of the bacteria isolated from the growth medium were investigated and phylogenetic analysis showed that the most closely related bacterial strain is clostridium sphenoides. However, the existence of significant differences in the phylogenetic codes indicates that the bacteria from the sea water pipeline belongs to a new species of sulphate reducing bacteria. Coupons of API 5L X52 pipeline steel exposed to these bacteria developed corrosion pits which did not form during the exposure of similar coupons to the sterile growth medium. What is more, bacteria from the biofilm formed on the pitted coupons contained iron, which was absent from bacteria cultured in growth medium in which there were no steel coupons. These results demonstrate the existence of an association between the new species of sulphate reducing bacteria and the development of pitting corrosion in X52 pipeline steel.     

The corrosion behavior of 70/30 copper‐zinc alloy under the biofilm of sulfate‐reducing bacteria

A laboratory study was carried out on the effect of the biofilm of sulfate‐reducing bacteria (SRB), which plays an important role in corrosion of 70/30 copper‐zinc alloy in culture media under anaerobic condition. The API medium was used to culture the SRB in Zhongyuan oilfield. Potential/time measurement showed that the presence of SRB makes the corrosion potential more active with SRB growth metabolite. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was used to analyse the electrode process of 70/30 Cu‐Zn alloy with SRB biofilm. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) examinations revealed the formation of biofilm and corrosion products during exposure to SRB‐containing culture medium. X‐ray diffraction and EDS were used to analyse the corrosion products. The results show that the variation of activity of the SRB biofilm changes with SRB growth by the linear polarization resistance (R_p) and the EIS in culture medium inoculated SRB.     

生物膜对碳钢腐蚀的影响

由江汉油由田采油厂污水中分离,提纯出来的硫酸盐还原菌菌株,采用ＡＰＩＲＰ－３８推荐使用的培养基生成生物膜,利用交流阻抗技术研究了生物膜与腐蚀之间的关系。细胞新陈代谢产物及腐蚀产生的分析借助于电子探针及气相色谱／质谱联用技术。     

Experimental and numerical investigation on combined girth welding of API X80 pipeline steel

Abstract

API X80 pipeline steel is widely used in natural gas and oil transportation. In this study, X80 pipeline steels with 18.4?mm thickness and 1219?mm diameter, made in China, were welded by a combined girth welding technology. Experimental results showed that microstructures in weld metal and coarse grain heat affected zone are mainly composed of coarsening bainite grains with dimensions of 20–50?μm, and Vickers hardness in weld seam is lowered by the seven-pass welding process. Simulated results illustrated that repeatedly thermal cycles imposed by the combined multipass girth welding process easily result in softened weld joints. The predicted microstructures, phase compositions and hardness in weld metal are in agreement with the measured ones. The results could be applied to optimise this combined girth welding process and improve the weld quality of API X80 pipeline steel and even higher grade pipeline steels.     

硫酸盐还原菌生物膜下Cu—Zn合金的腐蚀研究

从中原油田污水中分离提纯出硫酸还原菌（SRB）菌株,采用API RP－38推荐使用的培养基在铜材料上形成生物膜。结果表明,随着细菌的生长,细菌的代谢产物改变了黄铜的电极电位,用电子探针（EPMA）、X射线衍射（XRD）对生物膜形貌和成分进行了分析,生物膜中腐蚀产物成分主要有硫化亚铜（Cu2S)等硫化物,用交流阻抗（EIS）技术对生物膜结构进行了分析。     

Microbial consortium influence upon steel corrosion rate,using the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy technique

The Electrochemical Impedance Technique was used to evaluate the influence of a microbial consortium, isolated from a gas pipeline, upon API XL52 steel corrosion rate. The bacteria growth exhibited two different kinetics behavior, one for the plancktonic and the other for the sessile phase. The sessile bacteria were found to be the main responsible for the corrosion rate increment observed during the experiments and no relationship between the plancktonic microorganisms and the corrosion rate increment was found. The diagrams obtained from the electrochemical impedance measurements, indicated a biofilm formation and that the system changed from activation to diffusion control. Although the system was under diffusion control, an increment on the corrosion rate was detected, and a localized corrosion process was induced. The results were complemented with some surface analysis using Scanning Electron Microscopy.     

Microbial Corrosion in Linepipe Steel Under the Influence of a Sulfate-Reducing Consortium Isolated from an Oil Field

This work investigates microbiologically influenced corrosion of API 5L X52 linepipe steel by a sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) consortium. The SRB consortium used in this study was cultivated from a sour oil well in Louisiana, USA. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis indicated that the mixed bacterial consortium contained three phylotypes: members of Proteobacteria (Desulfomicrobium sp.), Firmicutes (Clostridium sp.), and Bacteroidetes (Anaerophaga sp.). The biofilm and the pits that developed with time were characterized using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). In addition, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), linear polarization resistance (LPR) and open circuit potential (OCP) were used to analyze the corrosion behavior. Through circuit modeling, EIS results were used to interpret the physicoelectric interactions between the electrode, biofilm and solution interfaces. The results confirmed that extensive localized corrosion activity of SRB is due to a formed biofilm in conjunction with a porous iron sulfide layer on the metal surface. X-ray diffraction (XRD) revealed semiconductive corrosion products predominantly composed of a mixture of siderite (FeCO₃), iron sulfide (Fe _x S _y ), and iron (III) oxide-hydroxide (FeOOH) constituents in the corrosion products for the system exposed to the SRB consortium.     

Effect of turbulent flow on the anodic and cathodic kinetics of API X52 steel corrosion in H2S containing solutions. A rotating cylinder electrode study

This work presents the electrochemical kinetics results measured during the corrosion of API X52 pipeline steel immersed in aqueous environments, containing dissolved hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) under turbulent flow conditions. In order to control the turbulent flow conditions, a rotating cylinder electrode (RCE) was used. Five different rotation rates were studied: 0 (or static conditions), 1000, 3000, 5000 and 7000 rpm. It was found that the turbulent flow increases the corrosion rate and the corrosion mechanism for X52 steel exhibits a significant dependence on mass transfer on the cathodic kinetics.     

Mikrobielle Werkstoffzerstörung — Biofilm und Biofouling. Simulation mikrobiell beeinflußter Metallkorrosion (MIC) zur Prüfung von Gegenmaßnahmen

Simulation of metal-MIC for evaluation of countermeasures Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) of metals is generally associated with the existence of a biofilm. To simulate and monitor these processes a mobile test apparatus was developed offering the possibility to simultaneously test the resistance of different metallic materials. Up to now biofilm development on metal surfaces and corrosion resistance of metal samples (St 37 and 1.4301-steel) were examined. The strongest attack on St 37 steel was obtained with a biogenic sulfide film at the metal surface as a result of the metabolism of sulfate reducing bacteria being exposed to oxygen. A continuous change between anaerobic and aerobic conditions in the presence of sulfate reducing bacteria resulted in a maximal penetration of about 1 mm/year in the case of St 37-steel. Under strict anaerobic conditions penetration amounted to 0.7 mm/year. Furthermore, a microcalorimetric test was developed to determine microbial activity of biofilm samples. The test offers a certain advantage for measuring the efficiency of biocides. It could be demonstrated that the concentration of a commercial biocide had to be increased considerably to be effective.     

AFM study of microbial colonization and its deleterious effect on 304 stainless steel by Pseudomonas NCIMB 2021 and Desulfovibrio desulfuricans in simulated seawater

The biofilm colonization dynamics of Pseudomonas NCIMB 2021 and Desulfovibrio desulfuricans (ATCC 27774) on 304 stainless steels (304 SS) was evaluated using atomic force microscopy (AFM) in simulated seawater-based media under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Results showed that the biofilm formed on the coupon surface by the two strains of bacteria increased in the coverage, heterogeneity and thickness with exposure time, thus resulting in the deterioration of the steel substratum underneath the biofilm in the form of pitting corrosion. The depth of pits induced by D. desulfuricans was larger than that by Pseudomonas NCIMB 2021, which was mainly attributed to the enhanced corrosion of 304 SS coupons by the biogenic sulfide ions, as revealed by the results of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Tafel polarization curves. AFM was also used to determine cell attachment/detachment processes of the Pseudomonas and D. desulfuricans bacteria on the coupon surface by quantifying the tip-cell interaction forces. The interactive forces between the tip and the bacterial cell surface were considerably smaller than those between the tip and the cell-cell interface due to the accumulation of extra-cellular polymeric substances (EPS) for both strains. Furthermore, the adhesion forces over the Pseudomonas cells were verified to be more attractive than those of D. desulfuricans due to the former being a slime-producer.     

Monitoring External Corrosion of a Pipeline Covered with a Polyolefin Tape Using Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

Protection of Metals and Physical Chemistry of Surfaces - The external corrosion of a pipeline buried or submerged under specific conditions was studied. The pipelines were made of API 5L X52 steel...     

Influence of Desulfovibrio sp. biofilm on SAE 1018 carbon steel corrosion in synthetic marine medium

This work assessed the effect of an enriched culture medium and synthetic seawater on the growth and production of exopolymeric substances (EPS) of a Desulfovibrio sp. strain, isolated from a Mexican oil well. The EPS (mainly consisting of proteins) growth was only achieved after exposing sulfate-reducing bacteria to culture media under dissimilative conditions that predominantly promoted the growth of the biofilm and a small concentration of microorganisms. Once this EPS film was obtained, the evolution of SAE 1018 carbon steel/biofilm/synthetic seawater (VNNS medium) interface was further studied using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy technique (EIS). This study revealed strong adhesion of the biofilm during the formation of iron sulfide (pirrotite) on carbon steel surface. The biofilm inhibits the accelerated damage of the steel for some time exhibiting impedance values of 30 000 Ω. However, at longer times the chemical environment around the biofilm, as a result of microbial metabolism, may become quite corrosive to steel.     

The effect of Acetobacter sp. and a sulfate-reducing bacterial consortium from ethanol fuel environments on fatigue crack propagation in pipeline and storage tank steels

This paper evaluates the effects of microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) on fatigue-crack growth of candidate materials useful in expanding bio-ethanol usage, including a storage-tank steel (ASTM A36) and two pipeline steels (API 5L X52 and X70). The microbiological species sampled and cultivated from an ethanol fuel production stream are responsible for both acetic acid and hydrogen sulfide production that lead to significant increases in fatigue-crack growth rate across a wide range of stress-intensity-factor amplitudes (ΔK). The mechanism for increased fatigue damage is hydrogen uptake through adsorption into the steel, which embrittles material ahead of the growing fatigue crack.     

X70管线钢在硫酸盐还原菌作用下的应力腐蚀开裂行为

目的油气管输中X70钢的应力腐蚀开裂问题日趋严重,而且土壤环境中微生物腐蚀现象备受关注,因此拟通过实验室模拟土壤环境下X70管线钢的腐蚀,获得高强度管线钢在硫酸盐还原菌作用下的应力腐蚀开裂规律。方法采用自制的应力电化学测试装置,通过慢应变速率拉伸试验(SSRT)对材料的应力腐蚀敏感性进行分析,利用交流阻抗以及扫描电镜(SEM)对断口形貌以及生物膜的成分进行研究。结果当应变速率为5×10~(-7)s~(-1)时,无菌模拟溶液中试样的应力腐蚀敏感性远大于含SRB模拟溶液中试样的应力腐蚀敏感性,SRB的存在对X70管线钢应力腐蚀起到很大程度的促进作用。当应变速率为1×10~(-6)s~(-1)时,SRB对于X70管线钢应力腐蚀敏感性的影响较小,断裂主要由力学因素主导,SRB起辅助作用。结论 X70管线钢在沈阳土壤模拟溶液中具有一定的应力腐蚀敏感性。SRB对于X70管线钢在沈阳土壤模拟溶液中的应力腐蚀起到一定程度的促进作用。     

Localised corrosion of mild steel in presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm

Microbially influenced corrosion (MIC) is a destructive type of corrosion, which is initiated, facilitated or accelerated by the presence of bacteria. The objective of this study is to determine the MIC behaviour of mild steel exposed to Pseudomonas aeruginosa inoculated nutrient rich simulated sea water medium. The formation of the biofilm layer, corrosion products and pitting areas on the steel substrate are characterised by field emission scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, energy dispersive spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy. The overall results showed the aggressive role of P. aeruginosa biofilm in inducing the corrosion process and generating significant pits on steel. This study may provide a new understanding of the MIC behaviour of steel caused by bacterial colonisation and biofilm formation.     

Corrosion of API XL 52 steel in presence of Clostridium celerecrescens

During the characterization of sediments formed in pipelines transporting hydrocarbons, the knowledge of the microbiological diversity becomes very interesting, especially when it is related to microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC). The presence of microorganisms is considered as one of the factors that affect the corrosion processes occurring at the pipeline; therefore, their corrosiveness must be determined. In this way, the identification of new species affecting the MIC processes is still considered relevant. In this work, the effect of Clostridium celerecrescens upon the corrosion of API KL 52 steel was evaluated. This microorganism was isolated and identified from the sediments collected during the inner cleaning procedures of a gas pipeline. The polarization resistance (PR) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques were considered to estimate the microorganism behavior during the corrosion process. The results were complemented with a metal surface analysis, using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The resistance values induced by the presence of the microorganisms clearly indicated that C. celerecrescens has an effect on the corrosion process occurring at the API XL 52 steel surface.     

Effect of highly pressurized hydrogen gas charging on the hydrogen embrittlement of API X70 steel

During the use of API X70 steel as a pipeline structural material for the transportation of natural gas, hydrogen embrittlement can occur due to the hydrogen contained in natural gas. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of the hydrogen content under high-pressure hydrogen gas conditions on the hydrogen embrittlement of air-cooled API X70 steel. The air-cooled API X70 steel was manufactured by hot rolling and was then air-cooled to room temperature. Tensile test specimens were held for 0 h, 1000 h, and 2000 h within a pressure vessel filled with 100% hydrogen gas at a gas pressure of 10 MPa, with the tensile tests then performed at room temperature. The microstructure of the API X70 steel consists of coarse polygonal ferrite, coarse pearlite, and fine acicular ferrite. The yield and tensile strength increased and elongation decreased considerably after a holding time of 2000 h compared to those of 0 h and 1000 h within the pressure vessel. The morphology of the fracture surface changed from ductile to brittle upon hydrogen gas charging. Secondary cracks were observed in both of the hydrogen-gas-charged specimens. No external cracks were formed on the surface of the tensile-tested specimen with a 0 h holding time; however, many external cracks were observed on the specimen surface subjected to hydrogen gas charging.     

Carbon steel corrosion under anaerobic–aerobic cycling conditions in near-neutral pH saline solutions – Part 1: Long term corrosion behaviour

A corrosion mechanism has been developed to describe tubercle formation along pipeline steels during successive anaerobic–aerobic cycles. Small concentrations of O₂ under nominally anaerobic conditions can lead to the separation of anodes and cathodes. Under subsequent aerobic conditions localized corrosion is then promoted by O₂ reduction on the general magnetite-covered surface. Subsequently, the conversion of magnetite to maghemite passivates the general surface, and focuses corrosion within one major tubercle-covered pit. On switching from aerobic to anaerobic conditions, corrosion is temporarily supported by the galvanic coupling of lepidocrocite (γ-FeOOH) reduction (to γ-Fe-OH·OH) to steel dissolution primarily within the tubercle-covered pit.     

嗜热硫酸盐还原菌生长特征及其对碳钢腐蚀的影响

采用API-RP38推荐的培养基,从渤海油田分离出嗜热硫酸盐还原菌（SRB）, 对其进行了初步鉴定,并研究了该菌种的生长特征。用电化学手段研究了该嗜热菌种在高温条件下对碳钢腐蚀的影响。结果表明,嗜热SRB生长周期短于常温SRB的生长周期。细菌能在40℃~80℃范围内生长,最佳生长温度为60℃。最佳生长pH范围为6.0~7.6,最适宜pH在7.0左右。 60℃静态挂片实验表明,该嗜热菌对碳钢腐蚀较严重,是空白培养基中的2.6倍。碳钢表面生成不均匀的生物膜,能谱仪（EDS）分析表明,在生物膜不均匀区域腐蚀产物中FeS_x化合物结构不同。 SRB生长过程中电极自腐蚀电位先正移再负移,电化学阻抗谱（EIS）研究表明生物膜的结构随SRB生长而发生变化,从而导致基体材料发生高温微生物腐蚀。