利用胚胎干细胞分化的拟胚体研究小鼠早期胚胎发育过程

小鼠胚胎干细胞(ES细胞)具有分化的全能性已经得到广泛共识。ES细胞在体外分化所形成的拟胚体在结构上能够模仿早期胚胎发育过程,包括在内细胞团表面形成内胚层、柱状上皮细胞的分化,以及中央空腔的形成。本文介绍利用拟胚体研究小鼠早期胚胎发育过程中各个胚胎阶段的发育、细胞程序性死亡的发生及TGF-β信号在胚胎发育过程中的作用。     

人诱导多能干细胞与人胚胎干细胞分化过程中Oct4/Nanog 基因 表达的比较

目的:比较通过慢病毒方法获得的人诱导多能性干细胞(iPSCs)与人胚胎干细胞(hESCs)分化过程中全能性基因Oct4、Nanog的表达变化。方法:收集分化不同时间点的拟胚体(EBs),检测三胚层分化基因以及全能性基因Oct4/Nanog的表达,并通过畸胎瘤组织切片的荧光染色分析Oct4的表达。结果:iPSCs获得的EB中内外三胚层分化基因表达的出现明显晚于hESCs来源的EB。不同于hESCs,iPSCs悬浮培养获得的EBs在体外培养18天未见内源性Oct4、Nanog基因表达的下调。未分化的iPSCs注射严重联合免疫缺陷(SCID)小鼠培养10周后获得的畸胎瘤中仍存在Oct4阳性的细胞,但iPS-#2中明显少于iPS-#5。结论:通过慢病毒方法获得的iPSCs虽然具有向三胚层分化的能力,但在分化过程中仍维持较高水平的全能性基因Oct4、Nanog的表达。     

小鼠胚胎干细胞结合丝素材料向神经细胞分化的实验研究

以小鼠胚胎干细胞（ES）为种子细胞,使用改良的4-/4+ RA方案,诱导小鼠ES细胞在丝素材料上向神经细胞分化,探讨丝素材料对其生长、黏附、分化等情况的影响。将小鼠ES细胞悬浮培养4 d得到的拟胚体（EBs）分别接种到经丝素膜和明胶包被的培养皿上进行诱导,比较不同材料上EBs的贴壁率及向神经元分化的比率。结果表明EBs在明胶和柞蚕丝素蛋白膜（TSF）上贴壁较快,平均贴壁率为90.3%和84.4%,在桑蚕丝素蛋白膜（SF）上贴壁较慢,贴壁率低,仅为38.5%,同时三者神经元的分化比率均能达到40%以上,无明显差异。通过以上实验,我们得出,TSF有望成为小鼠ES细胞向神经细胞分化的支架材料。     

人诱导多能干细胞与人胚胎干细胞分化过程中Oct4/Nanog基因表达的比较

目的：比较通过慢病毒方法获得的人诱导多能性干细胞（iPSCs）与人胚胎干细胞（hESCs）分化过程中全能性基因Oct4、Nanog的表达变化。方法：收集分化不同时间点的拟胚体（EBs）,检测三胚层分化基因以及全能性基因Oct4/Nanog的表达,并通过畸胎瘤组织切片的荧光染色分析Oct4的表达。结果：iPSCs获得的EB中内外三胚层分化基因表达的出现明显晚于hESCs来源的EB。不同于hESCs,iPSCs悬浮培养获得的EBs在体外培养18天未见内源性Oct4、Nanog基因表达的下调。未分化的iPSCs注射严重联合免疫缺陷（SCID）小鼠培养10周后获得的畸胎瘤中仍存在Oct4阳性的细胞,但iPS-#2中明显少于iPS-#5。结论：通过慢病毒方法获得的iPSCs虽然具有向三胚层分化的能力,但在分化过程中仍维持较高水平的全能性基因Oct4、Nanog的表达。     

AIF及AIF依赖的细胞凋亡

AIF是一种线粒体蛋白,具有氧化还原酶和诱导细胞凋亡两种活性。AIF从线粒体到细胞核的转位足以介导体外细胞凋亡的发生,而且是以非caspases依赖的方式进行的。AIF的诱导凋亡活性是小鼠胚胎形态发生过程中类胚体成腔所必需的,也参与了神经细胞的细胞凋亡。真菌、线虫等的细胞凋亡也有AIF同源分子的参与。因此,AIF介导的细胞凋亡代表了独立于caspase信号通路之外的另一条更原始、更保守、更普遍的凋亡途径。     

小鼠胚胎干细胞体外分化形成新生血管的实验研究

目的探讨小鼠胚胎干细胞(ES)在体外向内皮细胞(ECs)分化并形成新生血管的条件及特点。方法分别建立二维和三维小鼠ES细胞分化体系,对分化细胞行血小板内皮细胞粘附分子(PECAM-1)免疫荧光染色和DiI-乙酰化低密度脂蛋白(DiI-Ac-LDL)标记,观察ECs分化及血管形成特点。结果在二维分化体系,ES细胞在无外源性生长因子存在的条件下可自发向ECs分化,ECs主要定位在分化细胞密集处,分化表现为:ECs呈集落样生长,不形成网状结构;ECs互相连接形成网状结构,PECAM-1免疫荧光染色证实为ECs网。在三维的悬浮拟胚体培养体系,ECs的分化不依赖于外源性生长因子,分化表现为条索状结构、管腔样结构及排列紊乱的细胞团三种形式。对该拟胚体的冷冻切片进行的三维图像重构显示,拟胚体中有大量的血管网形成。在三维的Ⅰ型胶原培养体系中,ES形成的拟胚体表现为出芽式血管新生,这一过程依赖于外源性生长因子混合物。结论在二维和三维ES细胞分化体系中,ECs分化及新生血管形成过程与体内相似,表现为血管生成和血管新生两种形式,因此可作为研究血管发育机制的理想模型。     

肠道病毒71型感染诱导细胞程序性死亡形态学及分子生物学特征的初步研究

肠道病毒 71型(enterovirus type 71,EV71)感染常可引起婴幼儿手足口病(hand,foot and mouth disease,HFMD),还可引起中枢神经系统并发症等重症,甚至死亡。研究认为,EV71诱发重症的原因主要与病毒感染诱导细胞程序性死亡(programmed cell death,PCD)及诱导细胞产生大量炎症因子有关。病毒感染可通过激活不同的信号通路触发细胞程序性死亡,主要包括含半胱氨酸的天冬氨酸蛋白水解酶(cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase,caspase)依赖的细胞凋亡、细胞焦亡,以及非caspase依赖的细胞坏死性凋亡。本研究旨在探讨EV71感染诱导细胞程序性死亡的形态学和分子生物学特征,利用显微镜和免疫荧光技术检测EV71感染后细胞形态变化,JC-1染色检测感染后细胞线粒体膜电位变化,流式细胞术及Annexin V-FITC/PI双染法、乳酸脱氢酶释放量法检测感染细胞的细胞膜损伤程度,结合蛋白免疫印迹法检测病毒感染后细胞中多聚ADP核糖聚合酶[poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase,PARP]、caspase-9、caspase-3等凋亡因子,以及细胞焦亡关键效应蛋白Gasdermin D、坏死性凋亡效应蛋白MLKL的磷酸化情况。结果显示,EV71感染后细胞主要呈现凋亡特征,并伴随少量细胞坏死。与细胞凋亡相关的PARP被剪切,caspase-9和caspase-3等相关因子被激活。经泛caspase抑制剂处理后,细胞程序性死亡被抑制,但仍有部分细胞坏死。结果提示,EV71感染以细胞凋亡为主,也可能存在非caspase依赖的细胞程序性死亡。     

ES小鼠和ES细胞中H19基因甲基化状态

为探讨印迹基因H19的甲基化状态与ES小鼠胚胎发育之间的关系, 以遗传背景相同的正常成年对照小鼠、22只成年ES小鼠和8只新生死亡的ES小鼠以及不同传代次数的ES细胞为实验材料, 利用甲基化敏感性限制性内切酶-PCR技术分别检测了其印迹基因H19的5′非翻译区两个位点的甲基化状态。结果表明, 发育至成年的ES小鼠印迹基因H19所检测位点的甲基化状态与正常成年对照小鼠之间没有差异, 而新生死亡的ES小鼠印迹基因H19所检测位点的甲基化状态与成年ES小鼠以及正常成年对照小鼠相比则存在明显差异。推测ES细胞中印迹基因H19所检测位点的甲基化状态与成年ES小鼠以及正常成年对照小鼠之间可能存在 差异。     

小鼠胚胎干细胞来源的HPP-CFC体外和体内造血活性分析

小鼠的造血系统起源于胚胎发育7d的卵黄囊胚外中胚层,研究表明胚胎干细胞（Embryonic stem cells, ES cells）体外分化模型能够模拟卵黄囊造血的发生过程;此外,诱导ES细胞体外定向造血细胞分化对于建立治疗性克隆以治愈多种血液病具有重要的研究和应用价值。高增殖潜能集落形成细胞（High proliferative potential colonyforming cells, HPPCFC）是体外培养的最原始的多潜能造血前体细胞之一。本研究发现：小鼠ES细胞在体外分化5～14d形成的拟胚体中含有HPP-CFC。其再生潜能与胚胎期9d的卵黄囊来源的HPP-CFC相似,与骨髓来源则不同。RT-PCR分析表明：ES细胞来源的HPP-CFC表达与造血干细胞增殖相关的特异性转录因子和多种造血生长因子受体。但分化12d的拟胚体细胞和HPP-CFC集落细胞移植受致死剂量照射的小鼠不能产生典型的脾结节。因此,ES细胞来源的HPP-CFC在体外和体内造血活性的差异值得更深入地研究。     

敲除Pofut1不影响胚胎干细胞向神经元分化

蛋白O-连接岩藻糖基转移酶1 (Pofut1)基因缺失可导致Notch分子无法与配体结合并启动信号传递. 为研究Pofut1基因对哺乳动物胚胎干细胞（ESC）向神经分化的影响,利用Pofut1基因敲除的胚胎干细胞与野生型胚胎干细胞,经体外培养诱导拟胚体（EB）分化为神经细胞,计数分化为神经细胞的比例,采用细胞免疫组化染色和real-time PCR等方法,分析神经细胞特异性标志分子的表达. 结果显示,Pofut1基因缺失后,对EBC生长没有明显影响,分化过程中形成的拟胚体数量明显增多,分化的神经样细胞以及神经标志物分子的表达也明显多于对照组;Notch信号缺失对小鼠胚胎干细胞生长无明显影响,但可以促进ES细胞向神经细胞分化.     

A system to enrich for primitive streak-derivatives, definitive endoderm and mesoderm, from pluripotent cells in culture

Two lineages of endoderm develop during mammalian embryogenesis, the primitive endoderm in the pre-implantation blastocyst and the definitive endoderm at gastrulation. This complexity of endoderm cell populations is mirrored during pluripotent cell differentiation in vitro and has hindered the identification and purification of the definitive endoderm for use as a substrate for further differentiation. The aggregation and differentiation of early primitive ectoderm-like (EPL) cells, resulting in the formation of EPL-cell derived embryoid bodies (EPLEBs), is a model of gastrulation that progresses through the sequential formation of primitive streak-like intermediates to nascent mesoderm and more differentiated mesoderm populations. EPL cell-derived EBs have been further analysed for the formation of definitive endoderm by detailed morphological studies, gene expression and a protein uptake assay. In comparison to embryoid bodies derived from ES cells, which form primitive and definitive endoderm, the endoderm compartment of embryoid bodies formed from EPL cells was comprised almost exclusively of definitive endoderm. Definitive endoderm was defined as a population of squamous cells that expressed Sox17, CXCR4 and Trh, which formed without the prior formation of primitive endoderm and was unable to endocytose horseradish peroxidase from the medium. Definitive endoderm formed in EPLEBs provides a substrate for further differentiation into specific endoderm lineages; these lineages can be used as research tools for understanding the mechanisms controlling lineage establishment and the nature of the transient intermediates formed. The similarity between mouse EPL cells and human ES cells suggests EPLEBs can be used as a model system for the development of technologies to enrich for the formation of human ES cell-derived definitive endoderm in the future.     

Generation of embryoid bodies from mouse embryonic stem cells cultured on STO feeder cells

Embryoid bodies, which are similar to post-implantation egg-cylinder stage embryos, provide a model for the study of embryo development and stem cell differentiation. We describe here a novel method for generating embryoid bodies from murine embryonic stem (ES) cells cultured on the STO feeder layer. The ES cells grew into compact aggregates in the first 3 days of coculture, then became simple embryoid bodies (EBs) possessing primitive endoderm on the outer layer. They finally turned into cystic embryoid bodies after being transferred to Petri dishes for 1-3 days. Evaluation of the EBs in terms of morphology and differentiating potential indicates that they were typical in structure and could generate cells derived from the three germ layers. The results show that embryoid bodies can form not only in suspension culture but also directly from ES cells cultured on the STO feeder layer.     

Forced expression of the homeobox-containing gene Pem blocks differentiation of embryonic stem cells.

Similarities in the differentiation of mouse embryos and ES cell embryoid bodies suggest that aspects of early mammalian embryogenesis can be studied in ES cell embryoid bodies. In an effort to understand the regulation of cellular differentiation during early mouse embryogenesis, we altered the expression of the Pem homeobox-containing gene in ES cells. Pem is normally expressed in the preimplantation embryo and expressed in a lineage-restricted fashion following implantation, suggesting a role for Pem in regulating cellular differentiation in the early embryo. Here, we show that the forced expression of Pem from the mouse Pgk-1 promoter in ES cells blocks the in vitro and in vivo differentiation of the cells. In particular, embryoid bodies produced from these Pgk-Pem ES cells do not differentiate into primitive endoderm or embryonic ectoderm, which are prominent features of early embryoid bodies from normal ES cells. This Pgk-Pem phenotype is also different from the null phenotype, as embryoid bodies derived from ES cells in which endogenous Pem gene expression has been blocked show a pattern of differentiation similar to that of normal ES cells. When the Pgk-Pem ES cells were introduced into subcutaneous sites of nude mice, only undifferentiated EC-like cells were found in the teratomas derived from the injected cells. The Pem-dependent block of ES cell differentiation appears to be cell autonomous; Pgk-Pem ES cells did not differentiate when mixed with normal, differentiating ES cells. A block to ES cell differentiation, resulting from the forced expression of Pem, can also be produced by the forced expression of the nonhomeodomain region of Pem. These studies are consistent with a role for Pem in regulating the transition between undifferentiated and differentiated cells of the early mouse embryo.     

Forced Expression of the Homeobox-Containing Gene Pem Blocks Differentiation of Embryonic Stem Cells

Similarities in the differentiation of mouse embryos and ES cell embryoid bodies suggest that aspects of early mammalian embryogenesis can be studied in ES cell embryoid bodies. In an effort to understand the regulation of cellular differentiation during early mouse embryogenesis, we altered the expression of the Pem homeobox-containing gene in ES cells. Pem is normally expressed in the preimplantation embryo and expressed in a lineage-restricted fashion following implantation, suggesting a role for Pem in regulating cellular differentiation in the early embryo. Here, we show that the forced expression of Pem from the mouse Pgk-1 promoter in ES cells blocks the in vitro and in vivo differentiation of the cells. In particular, embryoid bodies produced from these Pgk-Pem ES cells do not differentiate into primitive endoderm or embryonic ectoderm, which are prominent features of early embryoid bodies from normal ES cells. This Pgk-Pem phenotype is also different from the null phenotype, as embryoid bodies derived from ES cells in which endogenous Pem gene expression has been blocked show a pattern of differentiation similar to that of normal ES cells. When the Pgk-Pem ES cells were introduced into subcutaneous sites of nude mice, only undifferentiated EC-like cells were found in the teratomas derived from the injected cells. The Pem-dependent block of ES cell differentiation appears to be cell autonomous;Pgk-Pem ES cells did not differentiate when mixed with normal, differentiating ES cells. A block to ES cell differentiation, resulting from the forced expression of Pem, can also be produced by the forced expression of the nonhomeodomain region of Pem. These studies are consistent with a role for Pem in regulating the transition between undifferentiated and differentiated cells of the early mouse embryo.     

In vitro differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells after activation by retinoic acid

Embryonic stem (ES) cells are pluripotent cells isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts. ES cells are able to differentiate into the three primitive layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm) of the organism, including the germline. In recent reports mouse ES cells have been successfully applied in the treatment of spinal cord injury, hereditary myelin disorder of the central nervous system, and diabetes mellitus. In this study, we investigated the induction of mouse ES cell differentiation, using culture of embryoid bodies (EBs) into the diverse tissues. EBs were formed by culturing ES cells (129/SV strain) in DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS, in the absence of feeder cells and leukemia inhibitory factor (LF). EBs were induced to differentiate by treatment with retinoic acid (RA). In control medium (non-RA medium) beating muscles, blood vessels, hemocytes, and cartilages were frequently observed in EBs. Moreover, when EBs were cultured in medium including RA (5 x 10(-8) M, and 5 x 10(-9) M), differentiation of the optic vesicle, lens, retina, and neural groove was observed. In this study we demonstrated that an efficient system for inducing the differentiation of ES cells using EBs.     

Derivation, propagation and differentiation of human embryonic stem cells

Embryonic stem (ES) cells are in vitro cultivated pluripotent cells derived from the inner cell mass (ICM) of the embryonic blastocyst. Attesting to their pluripotency, ES cells can be differentiated into representative derivatives of all three embryonic germ layers (endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm) both in vitro and in vivo. Although mouse ES cells have been studied for many years, human ES cells have only more recently been derived and successfully propagated. Many biochemical differences and culture requirements between mouse and human ES cells have been described, yet despite these differences the study of murine ES cells has provided important insights into methodologies aimed at generating a greater and more in depth understanding of human ES cell biology. One common feature of both mouse and human ES cells is their capacity to undergo controlled differentiation into spheroid structures termed embryoid bodies (EBs). EBs recapitulate several aspects of early development, displaying regional-specific differentiation programs into derivatives of all three embryonic germ layers. For this reason, EB formation has been utilised as an initial step in a wide range of studies aimed at differentiating both mouse and human ES cells into a specific and desired cell type. Recent reports utilising specific growth factor combinations and cell-cell induction systems have provided alternative strategies for the directed differentiation of cells into a desired lineage. According to each one of these strategies, however, a relatively high cell lineage heterogeneity remains, necessitating subsequent purification steps including mechanical dissection, selective media or fluorescent or magnetic activated cell sorting (FACS and MACS, respectively). In the future, the ability to specifically direct differentiation of human ES cells at 100% efficiency into a desired lineage will allow us to fully explore the potential of these cells in the analysis of early human development, drug discovery, drug testing and repair of damaged or diseased tissues via transplantation.     

Cell autonomous sorting and surface positioning in the formation of primitive endoderm in embryoid bodies

The differentiation and formation of the primitive endoderm in early embryos can be mimicked in vitro by the aggregation of embryonic stem cells to form embryoid bodies. We present morphological evidence that primitive endoderm cells often first locate in the interior of embryoid bodies and subsequently migrate to the surface. Cell mixing experiments indicate that surface positioning is an intrinsic property of endoderm epithelial cells. Moreover, Disabled-2 (Dab2) is required for surface sorting and positioning of the endoderm cells: when Dab2 expression was eliminated, the differentiated endoderm epithelial cells distributed throughout the interior of the embryoid bodies. Surprisingly, E-cadherin is dispensable for primitive endoderm differentiation and surface sorting in embryoid bodies. These results support the model that primitive endoderm cells first emerge in the interior of the inner cell mass and are subsequently sorted to the surface to form the primitive endoderm.