Fungal population in the atmosphere of Ismailia City

Fungal spore populations in the outdoor and indoor atmosphere of Ismailia have been studied during the period from March 1992 to May 1993. A total of 23 350 cfu and 73 species were recorded.Cladosporium cladosporioides, Aureobasidium pullulans andAspergillus flavus were the most abundant. The indoor and outdoor mycoflora showed marked quantitative and qualitative differences. In view of count, recorded species could be categorized into three groups as follows: (a) species showing higher counts in out-than indoor, (b) species showing the opposite trend i.e. lower counts in out-door than indoor, (c) species showing approximately equal counts in out- and indoor. Regarding seasonal periodicity, March and either September or October showed the highest count for both normal fungal flora (NFF) and opportunistic fungal flora (OFF). While January and July showed the lowest count of them both, May but not July was the lowest as for outdoor NFF.     

Airborne fungal spores in a sawmill environment in Palakkad District, Kerala, India

Concentration of airborne fungal spores inindoor and outdoor environments of a sawmill in Palakkad district of Kerala, India was studied with Burkard Personal Slide Sampler from January to December 1997. Total spore concentration in the indoor and outdoor showed a 3:2 ratio. Higher spore count was observed in indoor in January and in outdoor in October. Thirty three fungal spore types were identified from the indoor and twenty six from the outdoor. Aspergillus/Penicillium, Cladosporium, Nigrospora, Ganoderma, `other basidiospores' and ascospores were the dominant components of the airspora. Aspergillus/Penicillium, the most dominant spore type in the indoor contributed 51.19% and Cladosporium, the most dominant spore type in the outdoor contributed 44.75% of the total spores. The study revealed high prevalence of predominantly allergenic fungal spores in the sawmill environment.     

Seed-borne fungi of five cruciferous vegetables and relative efficacy of aqueous seed extracts against some associated fungi

A total of 121 seed samples of cabbage, cauliflower, cress, radish and turnip collected from five localities in Upper Egypt were assayed for their fungal flora. The highest count of fungi was recorded on cabbage seeds (75%), whereas the lowest count was observed on turnip seeds (33%). Thirty-five fungal species and two varieties belonging to 16 genera were identified. The broadest number of species (22 species + 1 variety) were isolated from cress seeds. However, only five species,viz. Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Penicillium chrysogenum, P. funiculosum andRhizopus stolonifer, were found to be associated with seeds of the five plants. The relative efficacy of aqueous seed extracts against these five fungal species was tested. The antifungal drug Trosyd (tioconazole) was taken as a standard inhibitor. The aqueous extract of cabbage seeds inhibited three fungal species, cress extract two and cauliflower and turnip one species; radish seed extract was ineffective.     

Preliminary surveys of outdoor and indoor aeromycobiota in Uganda

This investigation was conducted during the period of March through June 1998 to trap, enumerate and identify the different airborne fungi in a variety of microhabitats of outdoor and indoor environments in different localities of Uganda. The settle plate method was used and Czapek-Dox agar was the isolation medium. A total of 47 genera and 61 species in addition to some other unidentified airborne fungi were trapped from all exposures at outdoor (39 genera and 52 species) and indoor (35 and 49) environments. The total fungal catches of outdoor airspora obtained from all exposures (and even in most individual exposures) were more than twice (5222 colonies) of that of the indoor ones (4361) when the exposure periods are taken into consideration. It is worth mentioning that the most highly polluted sites were either parks, forests or river banks for outdoor exposures, or teaching laboratory, library, laterines or bathrooms for indoor exposures. The most prevalent fungi from both outdoor and indoor microhabitats being species of Mycosphaerella, Yeasts, Penicillium, Fusarium, Aspergillus,Cochliobolus and Alternaria. However, several others were trapped frequently from either outdoor or indoor environments. On the other hand, several others were trapped only, but not frequently (in low or rare instances) from either outdoor or indoor microhabitats. The implications of these airborne spores are also discussed. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Seasonal variation of fungal spore populations in the atmosphere of Zarqa area,Jordan

Fungi are among the most important aeroallergens. The aim of this study was to provide aeromycological baseline information about Zarqa area, Jordan, for the first time. During the entire survey and from 170 settle plate exposures, a total of 735 mould- and 274 yeast colony-forming units (CFU) were collected. mould colonies were assigned to 35 genera and 59 species. The highest abundance was attributed to Cladosporium with a percentage of 29.1% of the total colony count followed by Fusarium 20%, Alternaria 7.7%, Ulocladium 6.5% Penicillium 4.2% and then Aspergillus 3.6%. Cladosporium showed one peak in October while Aspergillus and Penicillium peaked in September. Fusarium peaked in May and August and Alternaria in March and July. However, Ulocladium showed almost the same abundance from March to June and then in September and December. A double peak in total colony count and fungal diversity was found, the first was in March and the second in November–December. Significant differences of total fungal colony counts favouring the 1500 hours collection time over that at 1000 hours were found between November and January while no such significant differences were obtained between February and April. Our results also indicated differences in species composition between the two periods in different months. Spores of the three abundant species, Cladosporium, Fusarium and Alternaria, might favour high release in the 1500 hours period during winter while having a similar incidence during the two periods in the spring months.     

Preliminary survey of indoor and outdoor airborne microfungi at coastal buildings in Egypt

Forty six species and two sterile fungi and yeast species were isolated from samples collected both indoors and outdoors of coastal buildings located in an Egyptian coastal city. Twenty flats from ten buildings were investigated; children living in these buildings have been reported to suffer from respiratory illnesses. Samples were taken using a New Brunswick sampler (model STA-101) operating for 3.0 min at a flow rate of 6.0 l/min. Most of the species isolated have been associated with symptoms of respiratory allergies. Indoors the total culturable fungal count was 1548 CFU/m³; outdoors, it was 1452 CFU/m³. Indoor values of culturable fungal count, total spores count and ergosterol content ranged from 52 to 124 CFU/m³, 100 to 400 spore/m³ and 5 to 27.7 mg/m³, respectively, whereas outdoor levels typically varied between 25 and 222 CFU/m³, 110 and 900 spore/m³ and 3.3 and 67.2 mg/m³, respectively. The maxima for these parameters were detected indoors in house no. 6 and outdoors, outside of house no. 7. The most abundant species were primarily mitosporic (2832 CFU/m³). The most frequent species in both the indoor and outdoor samples were Cladosporium cladosporioides followed by Alternaria alternata and Penicillium chrysogenum,with inside:outside ratios of 1.4, 1.8 and 1.9, respectively. The patterns of fungal abundance were influenced to some extent by changes in the relative humidity and temperature. Other factors, such as type of culture media, rate of sedimentation, size, survival rates of spore and species competition,also affected fungal counts and should be taken into consideration during any analysis of bioaerosol data.     

Airborne dust,bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi at a flourmill

A study was carried out on suspended dust, bacterial and fungal aerosols in a four-storey flourmill building located in Giza, Egypt. Airborne microorganisms were quantitatively isolated using liquid impinger and gravimetric samplers during the period from March 2004 to February 2005. Suspended dust varied from 1.96 to 16.3 mg m⁻³ and 0.69 to 1.8 mg m⁻³ in the indoor and outdoor environments, respectively. Suspended dust was significantly greater (P < 0.05) at bran package, double roller, purifiers and flour storage units in comparison to the outdoor reference site. The dust levels exceed the occupational exposure limit (OEL) of 0.5 mg m⁻³ for flour dust. Airborne microbial counts were found at median values, between sampling locations, ranged from 0 to >10⁴ CFU m⁻³. Gram-negative bacteria were found in small numbers (0–10² CFU m⁻³). The highest concentration of actinomycetes (>10³ CFU m⁻³) was detected in the storage unit. Airborne fungal counts were found at the median values, between sampling locations, varied from 10³ to 10⁴ CFU m⁻³. The counts of airborne bacteria and fungi were significantly greater (P < 0.05) at the purifiers and double roller mill units in comparison to the outdoor reference site using the liquid impinger sampler. Microbial levels associated with bulk deposited dust averaged between 10⁵ and 10⁶ CFU g⁻¹. Alcaligenes (5.4%) Pseudomonas (3.87%) and Enterobacter (3.1%) were the predominant Gram-negative species while Bacillus (29.4%) and Micrococci (13.9%) were the major components of Gram-positive bacteria. Aspergillus and Penicillium were the predominant fungal types indoor whereas Cladosporium (35.2%) and Aspergillus species (22.2%) were the predominant fungal types outdoor. A number of allergenic and toxigenic bioaerosols were found in the flourmill workplace.     

Profiles of Airborne Fungi in Buildings and Outdoor Environments in the United States

We examined 12,026 fungal air samples (9,619 indoor samples and 2,407 outdoor samples) from 1,717 buildings located across the United States; these samples were collected during indoor air quality investigations performed from 1996 to 1998. For all buildings, both indoor and outdoor air samples were collected with an Andersen N6 sampler. The culturable airborne fungal concentrations in indoor air were lower than those in outdoor air. The fungal levels were highest in the fall and summer and lowest in the winter and spring. Geographically, the highest fungal levels were found in the Southwest, Far West, and Southeast. The most common culturable airborne fungi, both indoors and outdoors and in all seasons and regions, were Cladosporium, Penicillium, nonsporulating fungi, and Aspergillus. Stachybotrys chartarum was identified in the indoor air in 6% of the buildings studied and in the outdoor air of 1% of the buildings studied. This study provides industrial hygienists, allergists, and other public health practitioners with comparative information on common culturable airborne fungi in the United States. This is the largest study of airborne indoor and outdoor fungal species and concentrations conducted with a standardized protocol to date.     

Profiles of airborne fungi in buildings and outdoor environments in the United States

We examined 12,026 fungal air samples (9,619 indoor samples and 2,407 outdoor samples) from 1,717 buildings located across the United States; these samples were collected during indoor air quality investigations performed from 1996 to 1998. For all buildings, both indoor and outdoor air samples were collected with an Andersen N6 sampler. The culturable airborne fungal concentrations in indoor air were lower than those in outdoor air. The fungal levels were highest in the fall and summer and lowest in the winter and spring. Geographically, the highest fungal levels were found in the Southwest, Far West, and Southeast. The most common culturable airborne fungi, both indoors and outdoors and in all seasons and regions, were Cladosporium, Penicillium, nonsporulating fungi, and Aspergillus. Stachybotrys chartarum was identified in the indoor air in 6% of the buildings studied and in the outdoor air of 1% of the buildings studied. This study provides industrial hygienists, allergists, and other public health practitioners with comparative information on common culturable airborne fungi in the United States. This is the largest study of airborne indoor and outdoor fungal species and concentrations conducted with a standardized protocol to date.     

Continually Measured Fungal Profiles in Sick Building Syndrome

Buildings with indoor air quality (IAQ) complaints frequently have high airborne concentrations of Penicillium species, while buildings with few IAQ complaints have an indoor air (IDA) fungal ecology similar to outdoor air (ODA), where Cladosporium species is usually the dominant microorganism. These studies compared fungal air profiles, measured continually over 6 h in a documented sick building, in IDA in a room experiencing IAQ problems with fungal profiles measured concurrently in ODA. The dominant species collected at both sites were Penicillium species, Cladosporium species, and Alternaria species. In the IDA, Penicillium species were always the dominant organisms, ranging from 150 to 567 cfu/m³ (89.8–100% of the total fungi). In the ODA, Cladosporium species were dominant in four samples (40.0–70.6%), while Penicillium species were dominant (52.7–79.6%) in two. These data demonstrate that, even though ODA fungal profiles are changing continuously, IDA fungal profiles in “sick” buildings tend to remain unchanged. Received: 6 July 1998 / Accepted: 12 August 1998     

Aspergillus and other moulds in the air of Kuwait

A one-year survey was carried out to study the aerial prevalence of Aspergillus species and other moulds in the outdoor and indoor environments of Kuwait. Petri plates containing rose-Bengal medium were exposed for 20 minutes twice a month using a six-stage Andersen air sampler at the pre-determined sites. The exposed plates were incubated at 28 °C ± 1 °C up to 5 days and colonies were enumerated and identified by colonial and microscopic morphology. The data revealed that Aspergillus species were the predominant component (27.7%) of the outdoor aerospora of Kuwait and A. fumigatus alone accounted for 21.3% of the total aspergilli. In contrast, Cladosporium species formed the major component of the indoor aerospora (22.8%), followed by Aspergillus species (20.9%), Penicillium species (14.6%), and Bipolaris species (10.6%). A comparison of the fungi recorded in the outdoor and in the indoor air revealed that Aspergillus, Alternaria and Fusarium were significantly higher in the outdoor environment, whereas Cladosporium, Penicillium, and Bipolaris were significantly higher in the indoor environment. The relative prevalence of Aspergillus species and other moulds in the outdoor and indoor air of Kuwait was as follows: A. fumigatus 5.9 and 9.8%, A. flavus 4.9 and 3.9%, other aspergilli 16.8 and 7.0%, Alternaria species 19.8 and 7.9%, Cladosporium species 13.7 and 22.8%, Penicillium species 7.6 and 14.6%, and other moulds 31.2 and 34.1%, respectively. During the study, 25 different genera were identified, indicating a wide diversity in the spectrum of local fungal aerospora. The study provides useful information on the prevalence of allergenic fungi in the outdoor and indoor environments of Kuwait. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Microbial colonization of soil aggregates as affected by temperature

Summary Sucrose-amended soil aggregates incubated at 15, 25 and 35°C exhibited quantitative and qualitative differences in microbial ecology. Numbers of bacteria and fungi showed a faster increase to the maximum level and a faster decrease with prolonged incubation the higher the temperature. Soil yeasts developed rapidly and extensively in aggregates incubated at 15 and 25 but not at 35°C.The fungal flora that developed on the aggregates varied with temperature: (a)M. silvaticus and anAlternaria species were the predominant primary flora at 15 and 25°C; (b)Sclerotium andPseudogymnoascus species developed in abundance in the later stages of incubation at 15 but were rare at 25°C; and (c)R. rhizopodiformis andA. fumigatus were virtually the only fungi observed on aggregates incubated at 35°C.Direct microscopic examination provided an estimate of the extent and type of fungal development that occurred on the aggregates. In general, dilution plate counts reflected accurately the growth and sporulation of the primary fungal flora of high sporulating capacity. But because spores of the primary flora remained viable in the soil and dominated the dilution plates long after the mycelia of these fungi had apparently decomposed, the plate counts provided little direct information regarding the development of the secondary fungal flora on the aggregates.     

Allergic potential of someAspergilli on saw mill workers in Lucknow,India

Fifty fungal types were isolated from the indoor atmosphere of saw mills by exposing Petri plates containing Czapek-dox Agar, Potato-dextrose Agar and Sabouraud Agar media for 5 min. The fungal flora of the outdoor surroundings was also studied for comparison. Species ofAspergilli dominated in the saw mills, being represented by 16 species including one ascosporic form. Other fungi were species ofCladosporium, Alternaria, Curvularia, Penicillium, Fusarium, etc. Variations in the fungal population in different months were also observed. Fungal spores recovered using the Rotorod Sampler wereAlternaria, Curvalaria lunata, Curvularia tetramera, Cladosporium, Dreschslera sp.,Epicoccum sp.,Pithomyes sp.,Nigrospora, Stemphylium sp. andTorula sp. Mycelial fragments and unidentifiable spores were also seen in abundance. Varying allergic responses of patients were also recorded by testing intradermally, the antigens of nineAspergilli, vizAspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A. japonicus, A. melleus, A. nidulans, A. niger, A. niveus, A. tammarii and A. terreus.     

Allergic potential of someAspergilli on saw mill workers in Lucknow,India

Fifty fungal types were isolated from the indoor atmosphere of saw mills by exposing Petri plates containing Czapek-dox Agar, Potato-dextrose Agar and Sabouraud Agar media for 5 min. The fungal flora of the outdoor surroundings was also studied for comparison. Species ofAspergilli dominated in the saw mills, being represented by 16 species including one ascosporic form. Other fungi were species ofCladosporium, Alternaria, Curvularia, Penicillium, Fusarium, etc. Variations in the fungal population in different months were also observed. Fungal spores recovered using the Rotorod Sampler wereAlternaria, Curvalaria lunata, Curvularia tetramera, Cladosporium, Dreschslera sp.,Epicoccum sp.,Pithomyes sp.,Nigrospora, Stemphylium sp. andTorula sp. Mycelial fragments and unidentifiable spores were also seen in abundance. Varying allergic responses of patients were also recorded by testing intradermally, the antigens of nineAspergilli, vizAspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A. japonicus, A. melleus, A. nidulans, A. niger, A. niveus, A. tammarii and A. terreus.     

An assessment of the air quality in indoor and outdoor air with reference to fungal spores and pollen grains in four working environments in Kerala, India

Qualitative and quantitative analyses of airborne fungal spores and pollen grains in four working environments (market, saw mill, poultry and cow sheds) in Thiruvananthapuram, the capital city of Kerala, India, were carried out for 2 years using Burkard Personal Slide Sampler and Andersen Two-Stage Sampler. Total spore concentration in these sites was always higher in indoor environments than in outdoor environments. Difference in concentration was not statistically significant in any of these work places except in saw mill (t test, p < 0.05). The highest spore concentration was recorded here followed by market, poultry and cow sheds. A total of 32 fungal spore types from indoor environments and 33 spore types from outdoor environments were recorded. Of them, 16 spore types were common to all the sites. Ameropsores, Cladosporium, other basidiospores, Ganoderma and Nigrospora were the dominant spore types in both indoor and outdoor environments. A total of 27 species of viable fungi from indoor and 24 species from outdoor environments were identified. Penicillium citrinum, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger were the most dominant viable fungi isolated. In contrast, total pollen concentration was always higher in outdoor environments than in indoor environments. Twenty-nine pollen types from indoor and 32 pollen types from outdoor were captured during the sampling. Poaceae, Cocos, Artocarpus, Amaranthus/Chenopodium and Tridax were the common and dominant pollen types observed in all the sites. Peak spore and pollen incidence were recorded during the late rainy and dry seasons (October–February) in both indoor and outdoor environments. The study revealed high prevalence of predominantly allergenic fungal spores and pollen grains in all the four work places. Workers/visitors are at potential risk of susceptibility to respiratory/allergic disorders.     

Airborne Fungal Colony-Forming Units in Outdoor and Indoor Environments in Yokohama,Japan

The fungal concentration and flora in indoor and outdoor air in Yokohama, Japan were analyzed with a Reuter centrifugal air sampler and dichloran 18% glycerol agar (DG18), and compared with the levels assessed with potato dextrose agar (PDA). The number of fungal colony-forming units (CFU) in outdoor air was < 13–2750/m³; Cladosporium spp. predominated, followed by Alternaria spp. and Penicillium spp. The fungal concentration in outdoor air peaked in September. The concentrations of fungi in outdoor air (n = 288) were significantly correlated with the maximum temperature of the day, minimum temperature of the day, average temperature of the day, average velocity of wind of the day, average temperature of the month, average relative humidity of the month and precipitation of the month. In indoor air, the fungal CFU was < 13–3750/m³. Cladosporium spp. predominated, followed by the xerophilic fungi such as the Aspergillus restrictus group, Wallemia sebi, the A. glaucus group, and Penicillium spp. The fungal concentration in indoor air peaked in October. The concentrations of fungi in indoor air (n = 288) were significantly correlated with the indoor temperature, indoor relative humidity and the outdoor climatic factors mentioned above, except for the average velocity of wind of the day. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Fungi in the indoor environment of flour mill in Lucknow

Forty species of fungi were recovered from the indoor air of flour mills by exposing petri plates containing potato dextrose, czapek-dox, and sabouraud agar media for 5 minutes. A rotorod sampler was used. The fungal flora of the nearby outdoor environment was also studied for comparison. Species of genus Aspergillus dominated in the mills, being represented by 16 species including one ascosporic species. Other species were of genera Cladosporium and Fusarium. Variations in the fungal population in different months of the survey year were also observed.

Identifiable fungal spores recovered using the rotorod sampler were Alternaria (17% occurrence), Curvularia lunata (10.6%), C. letramera (10%), Cladosporium (19%), Drechslera sp. (9%), Epicoccum sp. (5%), Pithomyces sp. (3%), Nigrospora sp. (10.5%), Stemphylium sp. (4.5%) and Torula sp. (4.5%). Mycelial fragments and unidentifiable spores were also seen in abundance.

Varying allergic responses of patients tested intradermally for the antigens of six Aspergilli, viz., Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A. melleus, A. niger, A. niveus, and A. terreus were also recorded.     

Air-borne fungi at Doha, Qatar

Thirty-five genera and 73 species, were identifiedfrom 312 daily exposures set up during theperiod March 1997–March 1998. The total fungalcatch exhibited two peaks in July and December1997 and a trough in February 1998. Cladosporium (6 spp. 40.1% of total fungi),Alternaria (4 spp., 21%) andUlocladium (4 spp., 9.2%) were the maincomponents of air-borne fungi, and thecommonest species were Cladosporium.sphaerospermum (29.7%), C.cladosporioides (6.9%), Alternaria.alternata (13.9%) and U. atrum (5%).The predominance of these dark-coloured fungiin air is discussed and is attributed to one orboth of two hypotheses. Aspergillus (9spp., 4.3%) and Penicillium (8 spp.,3.95%) came next and were represented mainlyby A.niger (1.3%) andP. chrysogenum (2.4%).Spore showers of C.cladosporioides, C. sphaerospermum, Penicillium chrysogenum and Myrotheciumverrucaria were noticed with no regularseasonal pattern.The monthly number of species ranalmost parallel to the total count of fungi.The broadest species spectrum (25–29 spp.) wasrecorded in the summer months May–August 1997and the narrowest (11–12 spp.) in February andMarch 1998.The highest monthly wind velocity wasregularly associated with higher fungal colonycounts than in case of the lowest velocity. Onthe other hand, wind direction did not exhibitany regular correlation either with the colonycounts of fungi or with the wind velocity. Highwind velocity could bring more fungal spores tobe sedimented on the surface of exposed agar.Diurnal fluctuations of fungal spores offungi displayed one peak at 12 noon when thehighest temperature and wind velocity, and theleast relative humidity were recorded and onetrough at midnight.     

House-dust community (Fungi,mites) in different climatic regions

Summary House-dust flora and fauna were compared in the maritime cool temperate climate (in three degrees of continentality), the mediterranean warm temperate climate, the arctic climate and the tropical climate.An inverse relationship exists between continentality of the temperate climate and the numbers of arthropods and fungi (mesophilic as well as xerophilic) in the dust of the houses.The numbers of arthropods and fungi were lowest in mediterranean and arctic climates, most likely because of the limiting effect of the drier indoor climate. Fungi are more tolerant of dry conditions than house-dust inhabiting mites. Generally the highest numbers of fungal diaspores and arthropods were found in the tropics, where, however, the lowest number of positive samples was also found, especially for the species of the Aspergillus glaucus group and for Wallemia sebi. Maritime cool temperate climate showed the highest numbers of positive samples for fungi and mites.In general, a relationship exists between relative humidity and the density of fungal diaspores and arthropods.Supported by grants no. 294 and 78.30 of the Dutch Asthma Foundation