Epithelial differentiation of the lower urinary tract with recognition of the minor prostatic glands

Preservation of tissues in glutaraldehyde-based fixatives allows identification of prostatic glandular secretions without resorting to immunostaining. This has enabled detailed histological assessment of the entire male urethra and bladder and has confirmed prostatic epithelial cells outside the confines of the prostate gland. Male and female lower urinary tracts are also compared. Three intact bladders and penile urethras from radical surgical specimens, tissue from 10 radical prostatectomies, 12 penile urethral biopsy specimens, and 40 samples of of metaplastic bladder mucosa were evaluated after undergoing glutaraldehyde-based fixation (Solufix, Tissugen, Western Australia). All sections were immunostained for prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and high molecular-weight cytokeratin. Selected formalin-fixed samples also were assessed and stained for androgen receptor status, and 10 female control subjects also were evaluated. Prostatic epithelial cells, as recognized by their content of prostate secretory granules (PSG), were identified in almost all periurethral glands seen along the length of the penile urethra. These "minor prostatic glands" were composed entirely of prostatic cells or, more commonly, mixed prostatic and mucinous epithelium. The penile urethra was lined by transitional epithelium, whereas the prostatic urethra was lined by glandular cells with superficial androgen receptor-positive cells that had lost much of their secretory function. Foci of cystitis cystica/glandularis contained prostatic cells in more than half of the cases evaluated, and in all cases PSG secretion in extraprostatic sites was commensurate with PSA secretion. No prostatic secretion was seen in the female control cases, and the female urethra, in contrast to the male urethra, was lined entirely by glycogenated stratified squamous epithelium similar to the epithelium lining the vagina and vulva. This study defines the entity of minor prostatic glands and confirms their extensive normal distribution in the adult male subject. Minimal but persistently elevated levels of serum PSA occuring after successful radical prostatectomy may be related in part to this phenomenon. The female lower urinary tract differs considerably from the male but has similar features related to the lower genital tract.     

Homology between the female paraurethral (Skene's) glands and the prostate. Immunohistochemical demonstration

Homology between female paraurethral glands and the prostate has often been suggested. A means was developed that would lend histochemical support to this hypothesis. Female urethra from autopsy and surgical material was serially sectioned and studied in 19 patients ranging in age from newborn to 86 years. Paraurethral glands were identified in 18 of these. The tissue was stained with antibodies to prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and prostate-specific acid phosphatase (PSAcPh) using the peroxidase-antiperoxidase method. Of those cases in which paraurethral glands were seen, 83% were positive for PSA and 67% for PSAcPh. Intensity of staining was semi-quantitatively evaluated. In addition, intraluminal secretions and urethral columnar epithelium showed positive enzyme and antigen staining. There was no discernible variation of glandular development or pattern of staining with patient age. This study demonstrates the homologous nature of the female paraurethral glands and the prostate and supports speculations about functional similarity.     

Ultrastructure of the normal adult human female prostate gland (Skene’s gland)

The predominant cells of female prostatic glands lining their lumen were found to be tall cylindrical secretory cells with short stubby microvilli, protuberances of the apical cytoplasm, and with bleb formation. Abundant secretory vacuoles and granules, rough endoplasmic reticulum, developed Golgi complexes and numerous mitochondria are characteristic of their active secretory configuration with apocrine (apical blebs) and merocrine (secretory vacuoles and granules) type of secretion. Basal (reserve) cells were seen to be located between the secretory (luminal) cells and the basement membrane. Their ground cytoplasm is dense with rough endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria. Their nuclei, unlike those of secretory cells, possess more peripheral condensed chromatin, denser dispersed chromatin and sporadic nucleoli. Besides the two basic types of mature prostatic cells intermediary cells were also seen, located between the basal and secretory cells or in their close vicinity. Their cytoplasm exhibits numerous profiles of rough endoplasmic reticulum and free ribosomes. Secretory vacuoles and granules were mostly practically absent (type 1 intermediary cells) so that they resembled basal (reserve) cells. In some of them, however, as in secretory cells, such secretory elements do gradually appear (type 2 intermediary cells). The finding of intermediary cells in the lining of prostatic glands supports the role of basal (reserve) cells in the renewal of cells in glands of the female prostate. The first ultrastructural analysis of the normal female prostate performed by transmission electron microscopy showed that, as in the postpubertal male, the prostatic glands in the adult female display mature secretory and basal cells. The results of the presented study further corroborate the contemporary concept of the female prostate as a functional genitourinary organ.     

Ultrastructure of the normal adult human female prostate gland (Skene's gland)

The predominant cells of female prostatic glands lining their lumen were found to be tall cylindrical secretory cells with short stubby microvilli, protuberances of the apical cytoplasm, and with bleb formation. Abundant secretory vacuoles and granules, rough endoplasmic reticulum, developed Golgi complexes and numerous mitochondria are characteristic of their active secretory configuration with apocrine (apical blebs) and merocrine (secretory vacuoles and granules) type of secretion. Basal (reserve) cells were seen to be located between the secretory (luminal) cells and the basement membrane. Their ground cytoplasm is dense with rough endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria. Their nuclei, unlike those of secretory cells, possess more peripheral condensed chromatin, denser dispersed chromatin and sporadic nucleoli. Besides the two basic types of mature prostatic cells intermediary cells were also seen, located between the basal and secretory cells or in their close vicinity. Their cytoplasm exhibits numerous profiles of rough endoplasmic reticulum and free ribosomes. Secretory vacuoles and granules were mostly practically absent (type 1 intermediary cells) so that they resembled basal (reserve) cells. In some of them, however, as in secretory cells, such secretory elements do gradually appear (type 2 intermediary cells). The finding of intermediary cells in the lining of prostatic glands supports the role of basal (reserve) cells in the renewal of cells in glands of the female prostate. The first ultrastructural analysis of the normal female prostate performed by transmission electron microscopy showed that, as in the postpubertal male, the prostatic glands in the adult female display mature secretory and basal cells. The results of the presented study further corroborate the contemporary concept of the female prostate as a functional genitourinary organ.     

Histology of the oviduct of the leopard frog,Rana pipiens

The first one to three mm of each of the paired female oviducts in Rana pipiensconsists of a folded mucosa lacking tubular glands and enclosed by a serosa. Most of the remainder of the oviduct is lined by a folded mucosa richly endowed with simple tubular, jelly-secreting glands. The final one to two cm of the uterine portion of the oviduct, however, has a smooth mucosal lining which lacks tubular glands. Jelly-secreting glands penetrate to the base of the mucosa and open to the lumen between ridges capped with ciliated or mucous secreting epithelial cells. As cells of the jelly-secreting glands grow and differentiate during the summer, they accumulate a granular secretory product which exhibits basohpilia in hematoxylinstained specimens. This is the essential change in the histological structure of the gland throughout the growing season. The adult male oviduct is a solid cord of cells for about one-third of its length. The inferior two-thirds, however, is like the female oviduct at an intermediate stage of seasonal growth with gland cells containing secretory granules which exhibit basophilia.     

Prostate specific antigen and prostate specific acid phosphatase in adenocarcinoma of Skene's paraurethral glands and ducts

An autopsy case of adenocarcinoma of Skene's paraurethral gland co-incident with renal cell carcinoma is described. The adenocarcinoma showed distinct prostate specific antigen and prostate specific acid phosphatase pointing to the equivalence between the male prostate and Skene's paraurethral glands and ducts. Skene's gland are the homologue of the prostate in females and tumours arising from them are immunohistochemically similar to male prostate carcinoma.In the title and text the authors used the official term of Nomina Anatomica paraurethral (Skene's) glands and ducts. Nevertheless recently published data on cross-antigenicity between the male prostate and Skene's glands and the newly discovered exocrine and neuroendocrine parameters of the prostate homologue in the female, comparable with the male prostate (Zaviai 1987), support the use of the same term — the prostate — for prostatic tissue in both sexes (Zaviai 1987, Zaviai et al. 1985). The designations female prostate homologue or female prostate equivalent are a compromise between terms the female prostate and Skene's paraurethral glands.     

Submicroscopic changes in the mammary gland epithelium of white rats during chronic administration of high doses of estrogen

Ultrastructural alterations of female albino rat mammary glands in normal estrous cycle as well as in lactation, postlactation involution caused by weaning of sucklings from the nursing dams, and after administration of estrogen (synestrol) in a daily dose of 0.1 mg per 100 g body weight were studied. Particular attention was given to histochemical and morphometrical analys is of the secretory and vacuolar apparatus of the epithelial cells. A significant increase in the number of secretory granules in estrus as compared to that in diestrus accompanied by the reverse relationships in primary lysosome (small coated vesicles) count was observed. Similar relationships between the above parameters were found when the mammary glands of the lactating animals and those from the dams with their sucklings weaned were compared. The abundant primary and secondary lysosomes, autophagosomes, and heterophagosomes as well as some Golgi lamellae and smooth cisternae of endoplasmic reticulum filled with acid phosphatase were often observed in the epithelial cells of the involutary mammary glands, indicating the activation of the vacuolar apparatus. In synestrol-treated animals a gradual decrease in both secretory and catabolic activities occurred after transient successive increase of these two activities. The possible role of the relationship between the secretory and catabolic activities of the epithelial cells during mammary gland tumorogenesis is considered.     

大鼠甲状旁腺的切取及功能测定

目的　通过对大鼠甲状旁腺的切取方法及功能的研究 ,为甲状旁腺细胞的移植奠定基础。方法　手术切取甲状旁腺 ,并行病理学检查。同时 ,用胶原酶和胰蛋白酶消化甲状旁腺 ,进行细胞培养。对培养5d的甲状旁腺细胞做透射电镜检查 ,应用放射免疫分析对 1d、3d、5d、7d的细胞培养液行甲状旁腺激素测定。结果　 18只鼠的甲状旁腺被成功切除 ,切除率 90 % (18/ 2 0 )。培养 5d的甲状旁腺细胞具有丰富的粗面内质网、高尔基复合体、杆状的线粒体和分泌颗粒。培养的甲状旁腺细胞可以正常分泌甲状旁腺激素 ,以第 5d为最佳。结论　大鼠甲状旁腺可以被准确的切取 ,培养 5d的甲状旁腺细胞 ,细胞器最完整 ,分泌功能最强 ,可以作为移植的最佳供体     

Histology and distribution of prostatic tissue on prostatic urethral margins: evaluation of radical prostatectomy specimens and implications on frozen section analysis

The identification of prostate-specific antigen (PSA)-producing glands in prostatic urethral margins is often challenging, especially when examined as intraoperative frozen sections. To assess the histology of periurethral prostatic urethral glands and their expression of PSA and cytokeratins 7 and 20, we examined prostatic urethras of frozen and permanent sections of radical prostatectomy specimens. We observed 3 types of prostatic urethral glands: urethral mucosal, prostatic acinar, and mixed. The urethral mucosal type consisted of a single layer of surface cuboidal to columnar cells with densely eosinophilic luminal cytoplasm and underlying urothelial cells. The prostatic acinar type was lined by prostatic-type secretory cells and basal cells. The mixed type showed luminal secretory cells and underlying urothelial cells. The gland types were correctly assigned in most frozen section slides. The proximal segment of the prostatic urethra and the bladder neck consisted mostly of the urethral mucosal type, whereas the distal segment and apical margins consisted mostly of the prostatic acinar type. Prostate-specific antigen was expressed in secretory cells in prostatic acinar and mixed types, whereas cytokeratin 7 was expressed by urothelial cells and surface cells of the urethral mucosal type. Cytokeratin 20 was not expressed in any of these cells. These results indicate that PSA-expressing cells are abundant in the distal segment of the prostatic urethra and apical margin and share histologic features of prostatic secretory cells. These PSA-expressing prostatic acinar and mixed-type glands should be reported as a potential source of PSA-secreting benign glands.     

Testosterone Promotes an Anabolic Increase in the Rat Female Prostate (Skene's Paraurethral Gland) Which Acquires a Male Ventral Prostate Phenotype

The female prostate (Skene's paraurethral gland) in the rat is morphologically similar to the ventral lobe of male adults and has been described in other rodent species and humans. Previous studies on prostate morphogenesis suggest that female Wistar rats (Rattus norvegicus) do not develop this gland due to the absence of testosterone during the embryonic and neonatal periods. On the other hand, studies conducted in our laboratory have shown that some females of this species can present an undeveloped but functional prostate. Recent studies on this gland have caused scientific interest because, besides being active in the processes of synthesis and secretion of prostatic material, it is also targeted by both malignant and benign lesions, mainly during senescence. Thus, this work aims to evaluate the structure of female prostate of adult rats (Rattus norvegicus) under normal conditions and under the effect of testosterone treatment and carry out comparative studies on the ventral prostate of young and adult male rats. Morphological and morphometric stereological analyses and immunocytochemical and ultrastructural studies were conducted. The results have shown that the prostate gland of rats exposed to androgen therapy have experienced intense growth, becoming more active in relation to synthesis and secretion. It may be concluded that the prostate in control adult female rats is morphologically very similar to the prostatic ventral lobe of young male rats. Besides, under androgenic action, the female prostate grows considerably and becomes similar to the prostatic ventral lobe in male adults. Anat Rec, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Immunolocalization of the water channel, aquaporin-5 (AQP5), in the rat digestive system

Aquaporin-5 (AQP5), an isoform of membrane water channel aquaporins, is expressed in the salivary and lacrimal glands. We surveyed the expression and immunohistochemical localization of AQP5 in the rat digestive system. RT-PCR analysis revealed that AQP5 is expressed in the submandibular gland, tongue, gastric corpus, pyloric region, duodenum, and liver. Immunofluorescence microscopy using AQP5-specific antibodies showed that AQP5 protein is present in the minor salivary glands of the tongue, the pyloric glands, and duodenal glands. To distinguish apical and basolateral domains of the plasma membrane of epithelial cells, double-immunofluorescence staining for AQP5 and tight junction protein occludin was performed. In the minor salivary gland, AQP5 was present in both the serous and mixed secretory end portions. AQP5 was found in the apical membrane of the secretory cells including intercellular secretory canaliculi demarcated with occludin. At higher magnifications, omega-shaped indentations of AQP5 labeling were seen along the apical membrane, suggesting a dynamic process for the apical membrane in exocytosis. Only weak labeling for AQP5 was detected in the basolateral domain. In the stomach, AQP5 was detected in the apical membrane of the pyloric gland secretory cells. In the duodenum, AQP5 was restricted to duodenal glands, where it was localized to the apical membrane. AQP5 was not detected in the intestinal glands or cells in the villi. These observations show that AQP5 is localized mainly in the apical membrane, including intercellular secretory canaliculi of secretory cells in the minor salivary glands, pyloric glands, and duodenal glands. AQP5 appears to play an important role in water transfer in these glands.     

Immunofluorescent localization of an androgen-dependent isoenzyme of prostatic acid phosphatase in rat ventral prostate

Isoenzymes of rat ventral prostate (RVP) acid phosphatase were isolated and partially purified by ultracentrifugation, Sephadex G-100 column chromatography, and isoelectric focusing. Antisera were raised to the isoenzymes of prostatic acid phosphatase by immunization of New Zealand white rabbits. Rabbit antisera reacting specifically to homologous but not heterologous isoenzymes of acid phosphatase were then reacted with a variety of tissues using indirect immunofluorescence. The tissues included prostate, spleen, bone marrow, liver, kidney, salivary gland complex, small intestine, and adrenal glands. An antiserum against a RVP acid phosphatase isoenzyme with a pI of 4.5 (A-PAP) localized acid phosphatase only in the supranuclear region of rat ventral prostate epithelial cells, and did not react with acid phosphatase in any of the other organs tested. A-PAP did not localize acid phosphatase in the ventral prostate from rats 14 days after castration. A-PAP did localize acid phosphatase in the ventral prostate from castrated animals that were treated with testosterone. These results indicate the A-PAP localized an androgen-dependent isoenzyme of acid phosphatase in RVP epithelial cells that may be secretory in nature. This antiserum should prove to be an ideal marker for studies involving hormonal regulation of prostatic epithelial function in vivo and in vitro.     

Cellular localization of aquaporins along the secretory pathway of the lactating bovine mammary gland: An immunohistochemical study

In this study we examined the cellular localization of aquaporins (AQPs) along the secretory pathway of actively lactating bovine mammary glands using immunohistochemistry. Mammary tissues examined included secretory ducts and acini, gland cisterns, teats, stromal and adipose tissues. Aquaporin 1 (AQP1) was localized in capillary endothelia throughout the mammary gland in addition to myoepithelial cells underlying teat duct epithelia. AQP2 and AQP6 were not detected and AQP9 was found only in leukocytes. AQP3 and AQP4 were observed in selected epithelial cells in the teat, cistern and secretory tubuloalveoli. AQP5 immunopositivity was prominent in the cistern. AQP3 and AQP7 were found in smooth muscle bundles in the teat, secretory epithelial cells and duct epithelial cells. These immunohistochemical findings support a functional role for aquaporins in the transport of water and small solutes across endothelial and epithelial barriers in the mammary gland and in the production and secretion of milk.     

Aging Effects on the Mongolian Gerbil Female Prostate (Skene's Paraurethral Glands): Structural,Ultrastructural, Quantitative,and Hormonal Evaluations

Different from the classic view, the prostate is not a gland exclusive to the male, also being an organ of the female genital system presenting morphofunctional similarity between human and rodent. Thus structural, ultrastructural, morphometric‐stereological features of the female prostate (Skene's paraurethral gland) and steroid serological levels were evaluated during young, adult, and senile ages in the Mongolian gerbil. The morphofunctional precocity of the female gland in comparison with the male gland occurring in young gland is probably associated with the female circulating steroid levels. The hormonal imbalance in senesce coincides with its susceptibility to histopathological lesions, such as epithelial hypertrophy, metaplasia, and intraepithelial neoplasia. Differently than that of males, the aging degeneration of the female gland involves the accumulation of lipofuscin granules. However, the alterations in senile prostate did not damage its functionality. These analyses reinforce the use of this experimental model for the comprehension of glandular morphofunctional aspects with special attention to senescence. Thus, the appreciation of this organ becomes relevant to avoid future discomfort to women's health. Anat Rec, 291:463–474, 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Immunohistochemical identification of functional relationships in the accessory sex glands

The distribution of tissue- and organ specific marker proteins has been studied in the accessory sex glands of different mammals. Tissue specific marker proteins are desmin, actin, vimentin, laminin, keratin and related proteins which are well suited to identify smooth muscle cells, fibrocytes, basal cells of the epithelium etc. Secretory proteins were used as markers for organ specificity, e.g. secretory acid phosphatase, prostate specific antigen. In the accessory sex glands of the rat a most complicated pattern of typical secretions was identified using specific antibodies. As deduced from this pattern functional relations are likely between the lateral prostate and the seminal vesicle and the dorsal prostate and the coagulation gland respectively. The ventral prostate of the rat has a particular range among these glands and is homologous to the human prostate.     

Effects of sexual rest or sexual activity on the structure and function of the ventral prostate of the rat

Previous studies have shown that sexual activity increases the weight of the accessory sex glands significantly, while the organ weights correlate inversely with the assayable androgen receptor concentrations in the prostate of sexually active versus sexually resting rats. In an effort to determine the structural basis of this phenomenon, the ventral prostates of adult rats kept with female rats for 4-6 months (HE-rats) were compared to those kept in groups of 5 males in one cage (HO-rats) for the same period. As an estimate of the secretory function of the gland the concentration of prostatic binding protein (PBP) was determined in prostatic cytosols using a highly specific ELISA. Catecholamines were measured by means of HPLC and subsequent electrochemical detection. Morphological studies included immunocytochemistry of PBP, visualization of adrenergic nerves, stereological analysis of stromal and glandular compartments of the prostate, and electron microscopy of the epithelium. The main findings were as follows: 1) The prostates of HE-rats were 35% heavier than those of the HO-rats. 2) The content in secretion was in the same range in both HE-rats and HO-rats (1.5 and 1.44 mg PBP per 1 mg DNA). 3) Immunocytochemistry and electron microscopy demonstrated a very homogeneous secretion within the glandular lumen of HO-rats with a diminished amount of secretory material within the glandular cells. In HE-rats the glandular lumina were clearly larger in diameter and intraluminal secretion was less homogeneously stained. The height of the epithelium was increased and the individual secretory cells contained several secretory granules.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

An ultrastructural study of myoepithelium maturation during postnatal development of the hamster Harderian gland

Summary This study reports the ultrastructural cell modifications in the myoepithelium of the Harderian gland during the postnatal development of the Syrian hamster. Tissues were obtained from male and female hamsters at days 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 12, 15, 17, 20, 27, 37, 46 and 90 after birth, and processed for transmission electron microscopy. Electron microscopy was coupled with point counting methods to quantitate changes in several subcellular organelles during the course of myoepithelial cell maturation. The myoepithelial cells in this gland remained immature at birth. The earliest age of development when organized bundles of microfilaments were observed was 7 days. By the 12th day, the myoepithelial cells had developed most of their specific characteristics and resembled the mature form. Myoepithelial cells mature synchronously with each other and with the secretory cells. No undifferentiated myoepithelial cells were found in adult glands. In addition to epithelial and myoepithelial cells, the secretory endpieces of the adult hamster Harderian gland contain a third cell type which resembles the myoepithelial cell in shape and has an extremely electron-lucent cytoplasm lacking microfilament bundles.     

Effect of low calcium diet on the ultrastructure of the rat parathyroid gland

Young female rats were fed with normal (1.18%) or low (0.05%) calcium diet for 3, 7, 15 or 30 days. The morphology of the parathyroid glands was studied together with serum calcium, parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin and bone mineral density (BMD). As compared to the animals fed with the normal calcium diet, BMD of whole body of the rats fed with the low calcium diet was significantly decreased, whereas the serum PTH level was increased. The parathyroid glands in the rats fed with the low calcium diet were markedly enlarged. In the parathyroid chief cells of the rats fed with the low calcium diet, the Golgi complexes and the cisternae of the granular endoplasmic reticulum were well developed, while the large granules and large vacuolar bodies decreased. Some secretory granules located near the plasma membrane. A proportionally larger increase of the cytoplasm was estimated in the rats fed with the low calcium diet for three and seven days. Enlargement of the cytoplasm and rather frequent mitoses of the chief cells were observed in the rats fed with the low calcium diet for 15 and 30 days. These findings suggest that the rapid bone loss in young rats induced by the low calcium diet is essentially due to stimulated activity of the parathyroid gland. The stimulated gland may be a result of hypertrophy at the early stage and a combination of hypertrophy and hyperplasia at the later stage of calcium deficiency.     

雌激素受体GPR30在大鼠下颌下腺组织中的定位、核心片段克隆及序列分析

目的 探讨雌激素受体G蛋白耦联受体30(GPR30)在大鼠下颌下腺组织中的表达,为进一步研究此受体对下颌下腺的功能调节提供理论依据。 方法 取SD大鼠4只,腹腔麻醉后切取下颌下腺,采用免疫组织化学和原位杂交方法进行定位研究;从下颌下腺组织中分别提取总RNA,应用RT-PCR方法获得GPR30基因的cDNA 核心序列,并进行序列分析。 结果 大鼠下颌下腺浆液性腺泡及颗粒曲管上皮细胞呈GPR30免疫反应阳性,阳性物质分布于细胞质和细胞膜上,细胞核呈阴性反应。上述细胞同样含有GPR30 mRNA杂交信号,信号物质亦分布于细胞质内,细胞核呈阴性反应。经序列分析发现,从大鼠下颌下腺组织中扩增出GPR30基因的特异性条带。 结论 大鼠下颌下腺浆液性腺泡上皮细胞能够表达雌激素受体GPR30,说明其可能是雌激素快速作用的靶器官。