颅内静脉窦血栓形成临床和磁共振及血管造影

目的分析颅内静脉窦血栓形成(CVST)的临床特点,磁共振成像(MRI)、磁共振血管造影(MRA)及数字减影血管造影(DSA)对其诊断的价值及早期诊断、早期治疗的意义.方法总结22例经MRI、MRA、DSA确诊为颅内静脉窦血栓形成的住院病人的临床资料及影像学特点.结果 10例病人无明确病因,发病时间4～10年,临床表现主要有颅内压增高及皮质受损表现.21例病人经MRI、MRA确诊,未确诊1例经DSA检查确诊.本组11例发病＜1个月的病人经静脉窦插管溶栓术及抗凝等治疗,症状和体征完全恢复或明显好转.本组9例行静脉窦插管溶栓术,5例病人症状和体征完全恢复.结论 CVST临床表现无特异性,MRI、MRA及DSA检查可确诊.发病早期(＜1个月)予静脉窦插管溶栓术,症状和体征完全恢复机会很大.     

儿童脑静脉窦血栓12例临床特征分析

【摘要】
目的 探讨儿童脑静脉窦血栓形成（cerebral venous sinus thrombosis,CVST）发病的危险因素、病因、临床表现、影像学表现及诊治方法。
方法 对2003年1月至2011年6月在北京天坛医院儿科及神经内科就诊的12例儿童脑静脉窦血栓进行回顾性分析。
结果 所有患儿均表现出颅高压症状。鼻窦炎（7例,58.3%）可能为儿童CVST主要发病病因。颅脑磁共振成像（magnetic resonance imaging,MRI）和磁共振静脉成像（magnetic resonance venography,MRV）显示最常见的受累静脉窦为乙状窦和横窦（各11例,占97.1%）。经降颅压、抗凝及对症支持治疗,8例痊愈,4例遗留神经功能缺损。
结论 CVST患儿常以颅高压症状就诊,感染为儿童CVST的最主要危险因素,神经影像学检查能为确诊提供依据,及时治疗可改善预后。     

脑静脉窦血栓形成24例分析

目的：探讨脑静脉窦血栓形成（CVST）的诊断及治疗策略。方法：对24例确诊为CVST患者的病因、临床表现、影像学特征、治疗方法及预后进行回顾性分析。结果：24例患者中,经各种方法治疗后4例痊愈,14例好转出院,1例死亡,5例自动出院。结论：CVST病因复杂,临床表现无特异性,确诊需行MRI／MRV或DSA检查;早期给予抗凝、溶栓及病因的对症治疗可获得较好效果。     

颅内静脉窦血栓形成14例

目的探讨颅内静脉窦血栓形成的早期诊断与治疗。方法回顾性分析2005年1月-2010年1月来我院就诊的14名颅内静脉窦血栓形成患者的病因、临床表现、影像学、诊断、治疗和预后。结果 14例患者中表现为头痛的有12例,伴有呕吐者2例,癫疒间发作者5例,伴有意识障碍者6例,伴有肢体瘫痪2例,伴有失语者1例。所有患者MRV均提示静脉窦显影不佳或不显影。给予抗凝治疗后,出院时9例症状好转,4例复诊痊愈,1例死亡。结论颅内静脉窦血栓形成(CVST)临床表现多样,缺乏特异性,诊断依赖影像学检查,特别是血管成像,抗凝是首选治疗。     

脑静脉窦血栓形成20例临床分析

目的探讨脑静脉窦血栓(CVST)形成的临床及影像学特点。方法分析20例脑静脉窦血栓形成患者的临床及影像学资料。结果多为亚急性起病13例(65%);病因以非感染因素13例为主(65%),头痛17例(85%)、视乳头水肿12例(60%)、血浆D-二聚体增高14例(70%),行磁共振静脉成像(MRV)的19例均阳性(100%);累及最多上矢状窦18/42支(42.8%),累及2支以上12例(60%)。及时抗凝治疗预后良好。结论 CVST是神经系统急症,临床表现复杂,医师考虑病人为CVST应及时做MRV多可明确诊断,抗凝治疗安全有效。     

外伤性脑静脉窦血栓形成

目的 探讨外伤性颅内静脉窦血栓形成（CVST）的特点及治疗策略。方法 对11例外伤所致CVST的诊断、治疗进行回顾性分析。结果 11例CVST患者4例继发于颅骨未骨折的闭合性脑损伤，7例继发于颅骨线形骨折；以头部胀痛、视力下降、癫痫发作为其主要临床表现；头颅MRI及MRV和脑血管造影检查为该病提供确诊依据；11例患者中4例行抗凝治疗，7例行血管内治疗；治疗后6例患者痊愈，4例好转，1例无效，无严重并发症发生。本组中9例病人接受门诊和电话随访6个月至3年，疗效稳定，无一例复发。结论 颅脑损伤后不明原因颅内压增高，尤其是并发颅骨骨折时，应警惕CVST发生，尽早行神经影像学检查以明确诊断，血管内治疗协同抗凝治疗可提高其疗效。     

颅内静脉窦血栓形成40例临床分析

目的探讨颅内静脉窦血栓形成的临床特点及诊断治疗方案。方法回顾分析我院40例CVST患者的起病形式、可能病因、临床表现、影像学特征、脑脊液检查、治疗结果及随访预后情况。结果 CVST多为急性或亚急性起病,并逐渐加重;临床表现多为高颅压综合征,脑脊液压力多数升高,影像学表现静脉血流减慢,闭塞,脱水、抗凝治疗疗效佳。结论 CVST的临床表现个体差异大,缺乏特异性,易漏诊或误诊。头部CT及MRV有助于早期诊断;治疗以肝素抗凝及静脉溶栓为主,必要时可联合介入溶栓治疗,及早诊断、早治疗是救治关键。     

颅内静脉窦血栓形成的临床分析

目的 探讨颅内静脉窦血栓形成(CVST)临床表现、诊断及治疗.方法 回顾性分析18例经影像学诊断为CVST的患者,行抗凝及血管内介入溶栓治疗.结果 18例患者均有颅内压增高表现;6例癫发作, 4例颅内出血, 4例出现意识障碍,2例偏瘫,2例高热.头部CT、MRI、MRV、DSA为诊断提供依据.16例应用低分子肝素治疗,2例进行血管内介入尿激酶溶栓治疗,同时进行肝素抗凝治疗.治疗后18例患者中14例症状完全缓解,4例症状明显好转.随访12例患者0.5～2年,疗效稳定,无1例复发.结论 CVST患者多有颅内压增高表现,及时行MRI、MRV及DSA检查,以明确诊断.抗凝治疗为首选治疗方法,血管内介入溶栓治疗协同抗凝治疗可提高疗效.     

48例脑静脉窦血栓形成的诊治

目的 对脑静脉窦血栓形成（cerebral venous sinus thrombosis,CVST）的发病特点进行综合分析并评估其治疗效果。方法 回顾性分析北京天坛医院和青岛即墨市人民医院神经内科收治的脑静脉窦血栓患者的临床资料。结果 2006～2010年两院共收治确诊的脑静脉窦血栓患者48例,24例（50.0%）患者为亚急性起病,主要表现为高颅压综合征,8例（16.7%）患者伴肢体活动障碍或肢体抽搐,8例（16.7%）患者有意识障碍。颅脑磁共振静脉血管成像（magnetic resonance venography,MRV）均表现为不同程度的脑静脉窦闭塞。治疗以病因治疗、抗凝治疗、对症支持治疗为主,部分患者联合介入溶栓治疗。痊愈15例（占31.3%）,好转30例（占62.5%）,无效3例（占6.25%）。结论 CVST临床表现缺乏特异性,及时行颅脑磁共振检查是正确诊断和及时治疗的关键,抗凝治疗是CVST的主要治疗方法,治疗后该病预后相对良好。     

颅内静脉窦血栓形成的临床与影像学特点分析

目的探讨脑静脉窦血栓形成(CVST)的临床与影像学特点。方法回顾性分析10例我科CVST患者的临床及影像学资料。结果本组10例均为中青年患者。临床表现头痛10例,视物模糊3例,癫发作2例。MRI+磁共振静脉血管成像(MRV)显示脑静脉窦异常10例。本组均予以抗凝、脱水治疗,痊愈3例,好转7例。结论 CVST的临床特点是中青年人发生率高,以头痛等颅高压症状为主要表现。MRI+MRV能显示闭塞的静脉窦及其血栓形成。     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.