Secondary utilized lead-acid battery used in mini PV system

铅酸蓄电池二次利用符合绿色产业的特点,有效提高资源利用率。基于二次利用铅酸蓄电池的小型光伏系统将新能源和储能技术更好的结合,实现了资源的梯次利用,是《铅酸蓄电池二次利用》系列标准的实际应用。研发成果用于农村地区污水治理,能更好的对资源进行有效整合、深度挖掘电池剩余容量、推动科研成果转化、实现资源循环利用、保护环境。整套系统具有不耗电、成本低、见效快、集成度高、操作简单、灵活性强等特点,非常适宜农村地区的污水处理。对水体处理效果稳定,可以有效控制水中COD、NH₃-N等指标,具有很好的推广应用前景。     

Effects of economies of scale and experience on the costs of energy-efficient technologies – case study of electric motors in Germany

Increasing energy efficiency is discussed as an effective way to protect the climate, even though this is frequently associated with additional (investment) costs when compared to standard technologies. However, the investment costs of emerging energy-efficient technologies can be reduced by economies of scale and experience curve effects. This also brings about higher market penetration by lowering market barriers. Experience curves have already been analyzed in detail for renewable energy technologies, but are not as well documented for energy-efficient technologies despite their significance for energy and climate policy decisions. This work provides empirical evidence for effects of economies of scale and experience on the costs of energy-efficient electric motors. We apply a new methodology to the estimation of learning effects that is particularly promising for energy-efficient technologies where the very low data availability did not allow calculations of learning rates so far. Energy-efficient electric motors are a highly relevant energy technology that is responsible for about 55% of German electricity consumption. The analysis consists of three main steps. First, the calculation of composite price indices based on gross value added statistics for Germany which show the changes in cost components of electric motors over the period 1995 to 2006; second, an estimation of the corresponding learning rate which is, in a third step, compared with learning rates observed for other energy-efficient technologies in a literature review. Due to restrictions of data availability, it was not possible to calculate a learning rate for the differential costs of energy-efficient motors compared to standard motors. Still, we estimated a learning rate of 9% for “Eff2” motors in a period when they penetrated the market and replaced the less efficient “Eff3” motors. Furthermore, we showed the contribution of different effects to these cost reductions, like a reduction of material use per motor produced by 15% and an improvement of labor productivity of 43%.     

Lead-acid batteries with foam grids

Conventional lead-acid batteries are relatively heavy and thus have a low specific energy. Therefore, to improve the energy density, a lighter grid has been proposed. In this work, a novel lead-acid battery with high specific surface area negative foam current collectors was designed and constructed. The collectors were studied by cyclic voltametery (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The foam collectors were designed and suitable paste composition and formation algorithm was obtained. The basic cells were manufactured and its performance was evaluated. The results showed that the foam grids resistance was lower than that for lead grids and the specific surface area of the foam grids was very greater than lead grids. The foam battery has good discharge characteristics compared with common lead-acid batteries. The discharge curve was flat and negative mass utilization efficiency was higher than 50% when the cell was discharged with C5/5 A (137 Ah kg⁻¹ negative active materials). The foam grids were used as negative electrode for various types of lead-acid batteries such as 60 Ah starter battery, 2, 3 and 10 Ah VRLA batteries. The batteries with foam grids were shown longer cycle life than conventional lead-acid batteries.     

Development of the all‐vanadium redox flow battery for energy storage: a review of technological,financial and policy aspects

The commercial development and current economic incentives associated with energy storage using redox flow batteries (RFBs) are summarised. The analysis is focused on the all‐vanadium system, which is the most studied and widely commercialised RFB. The recent expiry of key patents relating to the electrochemistry of this battery has contributed to significant levels of commercialisation in, for example, Austria, China and Thailand, as well as pilot‐scale developments in many countries. The potential benefits of increasing battery‐based energy storage for electricity grid load levelling and MW‐scale wind/solar photovoltaic‐based power generation are now being realised at an increasing level. Commercial systems are being applied to distributed systems utilising kW‐scale renewable energy flows. Factors limiting the uptake of all‐vanadium (and other) redox flow batteries include a comparatively high overall internal costs of $217 kW^?1 h^?1 and the high cost of stored electricity of ≈ The commercial development and current economic incentives associated with energy storage using redox flow batteries (RFBs) are summarised. The analysis is focused on the all‐vanadium system, which is the most studied and widely commercialised RFB. The recent expiry of key patents relating to the electrochemistry of this battery has contributed to significant levels of commercialisation in, for example, Austria, China and Thailand, as well as pilot‐scale developments in many countries. The potential benefits of increasing battery‐based energy storage for electricity grid load levelling and MW‐scale wind/solar photovoltaic‐based power generation are now being realised at an increasing level. Commercial systems are being applied to distributed systems utilising kW‐scale renewable energy flows. Factors limiting the uptake of all‐vanadium (and other) redox flow batteries include a comparatively high overall internal costs of $217 kW^?1 h^?1 and the high cost of stored electricity of ≈ $0.10 kW^?1 h^?1. There is also a low‐level utility scale acceptance of energy storage solutions and a general lack of battery‐specific policy‐led incentives, even though the environmental impact of RFBs coupled to renewable energy sources is favourable, especially in comparison to natural gas‐ and diesel‐fuelled spinning reserves. Together with the technological and policy aspects associated with flow batteries, recent attempts to model redox flow batteries are considered. The issues that have been addressed using modelling together with the current and future requirements of modelling are outlined. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The applications of electrochemistry (Ⅰ)--The development and applications of lead-acid batteries

铅酸蓄电池(以下简称铅酸电池)从问世至今已有150多年的历史,因其成本低,易于制造,型号多,易维护或免维护,浮充寿命长,使用安全,单电池电压高等独特优势,长期以来被广泛应用于社会生产和生活的多种场合.铅酸电池技术发展经历了漫长的历史过程,本文通过回顾铅酸电池的发展历史,从铅酸电池原理确立和技术演化两个方面进行讨论,从铅酸电池使用到回收的全生命周期过程进行全面评价与分析.在此基础上,展望铅酸电池的未来发展方向和应用前景,为新型电化学储能技术的提供借鉴.     

Further demonstration of the VRLA-type UltraBattery under medium-HEV duty and development of the flooded-type UltraBattery for micro-HEV applications

The UltraBattery has been invented by the CSIRO Energy Technology in Australia and has been developed and produced by the Furukawa Battery Co., Ltd., Japan. This battery is a hybrid energy storage device which combines a super capacitor and a lead-acid battery in single unit cells, taking the best from both technologies without the need of extra, expensive electronic controls. The capacitor enhances the power and lifespan of the lead-acid battery as it acts as a buffer during high-rate discharging and charging, thus enabling it to provide and absorb charge rapidly during vehicle acceleration and braking.The laboratory results of the prototype valve-regulated UltraBatteries show that the capacity, power, available energy, cold cranking and self-discharge of these batteries have met, or exceeded, all the respective performance targets set for both minimum and maximum power-assist HEVs. The cycling performance of the UltraBatteries under micro-, mild- and full-HEV duties is at least four times longer than that of the state-of-the-art lead-acid batteries. Importantly, the cycling performance of UltraBatteries is proven to be comparable or even better than that of the Ni-MH cells. On the other hand, the field trial of UltraBatteries in the Honda Insight HEV shows that the vehicle has surpassed 170,000 km and the batteries are still in a healthy condition. Furthermore, the UltraBatteries demonstrate very good acceptance of the charge from regenerative braking even at high state-of-charge, e.g., 70% during driving. Therefore, no equalization charge is required for the UltraBatteries during field trial. The HEV powered by UltraBatteries gives slightly higher fuel consumption (cf., 4.16 with 4.05 L/100 km) and CO₂ emissions (cf., 98.8 with 96 g km⁻¹) compared with that by Ni-MH cells. There are no differences in driving experience between the Honda Insight powered by UltraBatteries and by Ni-MH cells. Given such comparable performance, the UltraBattery pack costs considerably less – only 20–40% of that of the Ni-MH pack by one estimate. In parallel with the field trial, a similar 144-V valve-regulated UltraBattery pack was also evaluated under simulated medium-HEV duty in our laboratories.In this study, the laboratory performance of the 144-V valve-regulated UltraBattery pack under simulated medium-HEV duty and that of the recently developed flooded-type UltraBattery under micro-HEV duty will be discussed. The flooded-type UltraBattery is expected to be favorable to the micro-HEVs because of reduced cost compared with the equivalent valve-regulated counterpart.     

Understanding the reductions in US corn ethanol production costs: An experience curve approach

The US is currently the world's largest ethanol producer. An increasing percentage is used as transportation fuel, but debates continue on its costs competitiveness and energy balance. In this study, technological development of ethanol production and resulting cost reductions are investigated by using the experience curve approach, scrutinizing costs of dry grind ethanol production over the timeframe 1980–2005. Cost reductions are differentiated between feedstock (corn) production and industrial (ethanol) processing. Corn production costs in the US have declined by 62% over 30 years, down to 100$₂₀₀₅/tonne in 2005, while corn production volumes almost doubled since 1975. A progress ratio (PR) of 0.55 is calculated indicating a 45% cost decline over each doubling in cumulative production. Higher corn yields and increasing farm sizes are the most important drivers behind this cost decline. Industrial processing costs of ethanol have declined by 45% since 1983, to below 130$₂₀₀₅/m³ in 2005 (excluding costs for corn and capital), equivalent to a PR of 0.87. Total ethanol production costs (including capital and net corn costs) have declined approximately 60% from 800$₂₀₀₅/m³ in the early 1980s, to 300$₂₀₀₅/m³ in 2005. Higher ethanol yields, lower energy use and the replacement of beverage alcohol-based production technologies have mostly contributed to this substantial cost decline. In addition, the average size of dry grind ethanol plants increased by 235% since 1990. For the future it is estimated that solely due to technological learning, production costs of ethanol may decline 28–44%, though this excludes effects of the current rising corn and fossil fuel costs. It is also concluded that experience curves are a valuable tool to describe both past and potential future cost reductions in US corn-based ethanol production.     

Internal battery temperature estimation using series battery resistance measurements during cold temperatures

A technique has been developed to estimate the internal battery temperature (T_bat) of secondary batteries by measuring the series battery resistance (R_B) at cold ambient temperatures. Tests were performed on both lead-acid and nickel metal hydride batteries at different cold temperatures to obtain useful plots of R_B versus T_bat. R_B was measured by using a pulse discharge circuit to apply a short-duration current pulse (I_B) directly to the battery. The test results indicated that R_B not only varies with temperature but also varies with the amplitude of I_B. The R_B versus T_bat plots were later utilized to predict T_bat from R_B during alternating current (AC) battery heating at cold ambient temperatures.     

Lifetime prediction and sizing of lead-acid batteries for microgeneration storage applications

Existing models of microgeneration systems with integrated lead-acid battery storage are combined with a battery lifetime algorithm to evaluate and predict suitable sized lead-acid battery storage for onsite energy capture. Three onsite generation portfolios are considered: rooftop photovoltaic (2.5 kW), micro-wind turbine (1.5 kW) and micro combined heat and power (1 kW). With no embedded energy storage, the dwelling exports energy when the microgeneration system generates excess power leading to a high level of generated export throughout the year. The impact that the size of installed battery has on the proportion of the generated export that is reserved onsite, along with the annual energy discharged per year by the energy store is assessed. In addition, the lifetime algorithm is utilised to predict corresponding lifetimes for the different scenarios of onsite generation and storage size, with design tables developed for expected cost and weight of batteries given a predicted generated export and lifetime specification. The results can be used to indicate optimum size batteries for using storage with onsite generation for domestic applications. The model facilitates the choice of battery size to meet a particular criteria, whether that be optimising size, cost and lifetime, reducing grid export or attempting to be self-sufficient. Suitable battery sizes are found to have lifetimes of 2-4 years for high production microgeneration scenarios. However, this is also found to be highly variable, depending on chosen microgeneration scenario and battery size.     

An evaluation method of energy storage technologies based on energetic costs

近年来，中国和世界一直致力于发展储能技术，为电网运行提供调峰、调频、黑启动、需求响应支持，并帮助解决可再生能源间歇性、不稳定性、不可调节性等问题。本文回顾总结了国内目前评价储能技术常用的技术指标和经济效益指标。并站在能源可持续发展的角度介绍了基于“能量”成本评价储能技术的新理念及方法，阐述了基于‘能量’成本评价不同技术节能潜力的必要性，引入了全生命周期能源投入存储回报（energy stored on Investment，ESOI）这一新指标。ESOI比值越高说明该技术“净能量”越高，生产对能源依赖度越低。本文研究对比了不同储能技术的ESOI，结果表明以压缩空气储能（CAES）和抽水储能（PHS）为代表的物理储能技术的ESOI远远大于电化学储能，其中，过去常用的铅酸电池（PbA）的ESOI最小，只有2。     

The air quality and human health effects of integrating utility-scale batteries into the New York State electricity grid

In a restructured electricity market, utility-scale energy storage technologies such as advanced batteries can generate revenue by charging at low electricity prices and discharging at high prices. This strategy changes the magnitude and distribution of air quality emissions and the total carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. We evaluate the social costs associated with these changes using a case study of 500 MW sodium-sulfur battery installations with 80% round-trip efficiency. The batteries displace peaking generators in New York City and charge using off-peak generation in the New York Independent System Operator (NYISO) electricity grid during the summer. We identify and map charging and displaced plant types to generators in the NYISO. We then convert the emissions into ambient concentrations with a chemical transport model, the Particulate Matter Comprehensive Air Quality Model with extensions (PMCAM_x). Finally, we transform the concentrations into their equivalent human health effects and social benefits and costs. Reductions in premature mortality from fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) result in a benefit of 4.5 ¢ kWh⁻¹ and 17 ¢ kWh⁻¹ from displacing a natural gas and distillate fuel oil fueled peaking plant, respectively, in New York City. Ozone (O₃) concentrations increase due to decreases in nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions, although the magnitude of the social cost is less certain. Adding the costs from charging, displacing a distillate fuel oil plant yields a net social benefit, while displacing the natural gas plant has a net social cost. With the existing base-load capacity, the upstate population experiences an increase in adverse health effects. If wind generation is charging the battery, both the upstate charging location and New York City benefit. At $20 per tonne of CO₂, the costs from CO₂ are small compared to those from air quality. We conclude that storage could be added to existing electricity grids as part of an integrated strategy from a human health standpoint.     

Battery storage in residential applications of energy from photovoltaic sources

Electric energy storage in batteries is discussed for future applications in homeowner-controlled grid-tied photovoltaic power generation systems for residences. Energy storage would enable more effective matching of the intermittent solar-generated energy to high-use periods, as well as storage of energy for sale to the utilities, taking advantage of future variable (time-of-day) utility rate and buy-back structures. State-of-the-art lead-acid batteries are economically viable for utility rate scenarios that are expected to be in effect in many areas of the United States in the mid-1980s.¹ ‘Advanced batteries’ (e.g. sodium-sulfur, zinc-bromine, lithium-metal sulfide) with decreased capital investment costs, minimal maintenance and improved performance characteristics could have enhanced consumer acceptance in the late 1980s.     

Substation battery options: present and future

Whenever a new battery type is considered, it is important to use life-cycle cost analysis that weighs all costs associated with battery ownership over a certain period of time, including the replacement of shorter-life batteries and all associated maintenance and testing activities. This article discusses the benefits and drawbacks of some of the potential alternatives to vented lead-acid batteries in substation service. These include VRLA, nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd), nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH), lithium-ion (Li-ion) and lithium polymer (Li-polymer). The aim of the article is to provide an overview of ongoing battery development work and an idea of the time-frame for commercial availability     

Improving photovoltaic system sizing by using electrolyte circulation in the lead-acid batteries

Lead-acid batteries are, between all types of batteries, the most used today as storage systems for photovoltaic applications. The sizing of the lead-acid batteries is based on some external parameters, solar irradiation and load consumption, and some battery characteristics, charge capacity and efficiency, depth of discharge, operating voltage, and ageing effects. The improvement of any of these parameters will result in an improvement of the sizing of the lead-acid battery and, consequently, of the sizing of the photovoltaic array. We have studied in this paper the influence of the improved capacity of lead-acid batteries with electrolyte circulation onto the sizing of the lead-acid battery and the PV array. The experimental results have shown that the lead-acid battery capacity can be improved as much as 20% if electrolyte circulation is used. The improvement results in a reduction of up to 30% in the size of the battery if combined with the improvement in the reduction of the battery capacity due to annual cycling and ageing, another beneficial effect of the electrolyte circulation. The reduction of size is extended to the PV array which is affected not only by the above mentioned effects, but also by the higher charge efficiency of the electrolyte circulation battery. The reduction in sizing the PV array can be as much as 41% for the most exigent operating conditions, deep depth of discharge and high discharge rate. The use of an electrolyte circulation system is especially useful in lead-acid batteries for PV systems which must operate at very deep cycling and require a minimum size of the battery block.     

Evaluating energy storage technologies for wind power integration

In this paper we perform a cost analysis of different types of energy storage technologies. We evaluate eleven storage technologies, including lead-acid, sodium–sulfur, nickel–cadmium, and lithium-ion batteries, superconducting magnetic energy storage, electrochemical capacitors, flywheels, flow batteries, pumped hydro and compressed air energy storage systems. We perform economic analysis for key applications associated with a wind farm integrated into the electric grid, including load shifting, frequency support, and power quality. We identify the key characteristics that affect the economic viability for these technologies, perform sensitivity analyses based on key performance criteria and find improvement areas that could make them more competitive in the near future.     

Application of valve-regulated lead-acid batteries for storage of solar electricity in stand-alone photovoltaic systems in the northwest areas of China

Photovoltaic (PV) installations for solar electric power generation are being established rapidly in the northwest areas of China, and it is increasingly important for these power systems to have reliable and cost effective energy storage. The lead-acid battery is the more commonly used storage technology for PV systems due to its low cost and its wide availability. However, analysis shows that it is the weakest component of PV power systems. Because the batteries can be over discharged, or operated under partial state of charge (PSOC), their service life in PV systems is shorter than could be expected. The working conditions of batteries in remote area installations are worse than those in situations where technical support is readily available. Capacity-loss in lead-acid batteries operated in remote locations often occurs through sulfation of electrodes and stratification of electrolyte.In northwest China, Shandong Sacred Sun Power Sources Industry Co. Ltd. type GFMU valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries are being used in PV power stations. These batteries have an advanced grid structure, superior leady paste, and are manufactured using improved plate formation methods. Their characteristics, and their performance in PV systems, are discussed in this paper. The testing results of GFMU VRLA batteries in the laboratory have shown that the batteries could satisfy the demands of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards for PV systems.     

Technological learning in bioenergy systems

The main goal of this article is to determine whether cost reductions in different bioenergy systems can be quantified using the experience curve approach, and how specific issues (arising from the complexity of biomass energy systems) can be addressed. This is pursued by case studies on biofuelled combined heat and power (CHP) plants in Sweden, global development of fluidized bed boilers and Danish biogas plants. As secondary goal, the aim is to identify learning mechanisms behind technology development and cost reduction for the biomass energy systems investigated. The case studies reveal large difficulties to devise empirical experience curves for investment costs of biomass-fuelled power plants. To some extent, this is due to lack of (detailed) data. The main reason, however, are varying plant costs due to differences in scale, fuel type, plant layout, region etc. For fluidized bed boiler plants built on a global level, progress ratios (PRs) for the price of entire plants lies approximately between 90–93% (which is typical for large plant-like technologies). The costs for the boiler section alone was found to decline much faster. The experience curve approach delivers better results, when the production costs of the final energy carrier are analyzed. Electricity from biofuelled CHP-plants yields PRs of 91–92%, i.e. an 8–9% reduction of electricity production costs with each cumulative doubling of electricity production. The experience curve for biogas production displays a PR of 85% from 1984 to the beginning of 1990, and then levels to approximately 100% until 2002. For technologies developed on a local level (e.g. biogas plants), learning-by-using and learning-by-interacting are important learning mechanism, while for CHP plants utilizing fluidized bed boilers, upscaling is probably one of the main mechanisms behind cost reductions.     

Lead acid battery storage configurations for improved availablecapacity

Battery storage is a crucial element in alternative energy and electric vehicle systems. Three battery storage configurations: a conventional; a parallel; and a dual, were analyzed for both shallow cycle and deep cycle lead-acid batteries to determine if capacity improvement is achievable. Daily profiles for the weekly irradiance, daily loads, and ambient temperature are simulated. Cycle tests were performed monthly to determine the effect each configuration had on the available battery capacity. Results for each battery type differ. Available capacity was improved using the parallel configuration with shallow cycle batteries and the dual configuration with deep cycle batteries     

Lead carbon ultrabatteries for energy storage

储能技术在太阳能、风能等可再生能源发电、智能电网/微网建设等方面有着广阔的应用前景。铅酸电池具有价格低、较高电压、性能稳定、宽工作温度范围等优势,占据着固定储能市场的主导地位。但在智能电网、混合动力车的实际应用中,电池必须在不同的充电状态下操作,特别是在高倍率部分荷电模式。在这种操作模式下,硫酸盐沉积物积聚在电极表面,限制了铅酸电池的容量和循环寿命。铅碳电池是由铅酸电池和超级电容器组合形成的新型储能装置,它抑制了放电过程中负极板表面硫酸盐的不均匀分布和充电时较早的析氢现象,具有铅酸电池高能量和超级电容器高功率的优点,在部分荷电态大功率充放电状态具有较高的循环寿命,适合高倍率循环和瞬间脉冲放电等工作状态。本文介绍了铅碳电池的基本概念及原理,并对铅碳电池储能技术的发展历程和现状进行了总结。     

Evaluation of energy requirements for all-electric range of plug-in hybrid electric two-wheeler

Recently plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are emerging as one of the promising alternative to improve the sustainability of transportation energy and air quality especially in urban areas. The all-electric range in PHEV design plays a significant role in sizing of battery pack and cost. This paper presents the evaluation of battery energy and power requirements for a plug-in hybrid electric two-wheeler for different all-electric ranges. An analytical vehicle model and MATLAB simulation analysis has been discussed. The MATLAB simulation results estimate the impact of driving cycle and all-electric range on energy capacity, additional mass and initial cost of lead-acid, nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries. This paper also focuses on influence of cycle life on annual cost of battery pack and recommended suitable battery pack for implementing in plug-in hybrid electric two-wheelers.