Study of metadynamic recrystallization behaviors in a low alloy steel

The metadynamic recrystallization behaviors in deformed 42CrMo steel were investigated by isothermal interrupted hot compression tests on Gleeble-1500 thermo-mechanical simulator. Compression tests were performed using double hit schedules at temperatures of (850–1150) °C, strain rates of (0.01–1) s^?1 and inter-stage delay time of (1–50) s. The kinetic equations have been proposed to predict the metadynamic recrystallization behaviors in hot compressed 42CrMo steel. Comparisons between the experimental and predicted results were carried out. Results show that the effects of deformation parameters, including strain rate and deformation temperature, on the softening behaviors in the two-pass hot deformed 42CrMo steel are significant. However, the deformation degree (beyond the peak strain) has little influence on the metadynamic recrystallization behaviors in 42CrMo steel. The predicted results well agree with the experimental ones, which indicate that the proposed kinetic equations can give a precise estimate of the softening behaviors and microstructural evolution for the hot deformed 42CrMo steel.     

Flow softening and microstructural evolution of TC11 titanium alloy during hot deformation

Hot compression tests on samples of the TC11 (Ti–6.5Al–3.5Mo–1.5Zr–0.3Si) titanium alloy have been done within the temperatures of 750–950 °C and strain rate ranges of 0.1–10 s^?1 to 40–60% height reduction. The experimental results show that the flow stress behavior can be described by an exponential law for the deformation conditions. The hot deformation activation energy (Q) derived from the experimental data is 538 kJ mol^?1 with a strain rate sensitivity exponent (m) of 0.107. Optical microstructure evidence shows that dynamic recrystallization (DRX) takes place during the deformation process. Moreover, only α DRX grains are founded in the titanium alloys. The influences of hot working parameters on the flow stress behavior and microstructural features of TC11 alloy, especially on the type of phase present, the morphologies of the α phase, grain size and DRX are analyzed. The optimum parameters for hot working of TC11 alloy are developed.     

Microstructure and crystallographic texture of an ultrafine grained C–Mn steel and their evolution during warm deformation and annealing

The evolution of microstructure and texture of a 0.2%C–Mn steel during large strain warm deformation and subsequent annealing has been investigated. The process of grain subdivision during warm deformation is essential for the formation of ultrafine grains in such a material. The study reveals that pronounced recovery instead of primary recrystallization is required to obtain a large fraction of high-angle grain boundaries (HAGBs) as a prerequisite for the development of ultrafine grains in the course of warm deformation. The prevalence of primary recrystallization instead of recovery is not generally beneficial in this context since it reduces significantly the dislocation density and removes the substructure which is important for the gradual formation of subgrains and, finally, of ultrafine grains which are surrounded by HAGBs. Consistently, the texture of the ultrafine grained 0.2%C–Mn steel observed after large strain warm deformation and subsequent annealing, consists primarily of the α-(〈1 1 0〉∥RD) texture fiber which indicates strong recovery. The γ-(〈1 1 1〉∥ND) texture fiber which is typical of recrystallized rolled ferritic steels does not appear. The process occurring during the deformation and subsequent annealing can, therefore, be interpreted as a pronounced recovery process during which new grains are created without preceding nucleation.     

Dynamic recrystallization mechanisms of an Fe–8% Al low density steel under hot rolling conditions

Iron–aluminium alloys display promising physical and mechanical properties. In this study, the effects of strain, strain rate and temperature on an Fe–8% Al were investigated. Hot torsion tests were performed in the temperature range 900–1100 °C and strain rate range 0.1–10 s^?1. In this alloy, two types of dynamic recrystallization may operate during hot deformation: at high temperature and high strain rate, this alloy undergoes discontinuous dynamic recrystallization, whereas at lower temperature and strain rate, continuous dynamic recrystallization occurs.     

Prediction of static recrystallization in a multi-pass hot deformed low-alloy steel using artificial neural network

The static recrystallization behaviors in 42CrMo steel were investigated by isothermal interrupted hot compression tests. Based on the experimental results, an efficient artificial neural network (ANN) model was developed to predict the flow stress and static recrystallized fractions. The effects of the deformation temperature, strain rate and deformation degree, as well as initial grain sizes, on the static recrystallization behaviors in two-pass hot compressed 42CrMo steel were investigated by the experiments and ANN model. A very good correlation between the experimental and predicted results from the developed ANN model has been obtained, which indicates that the excellent capability of the developed ANN model to predict the flow stress level and static recrystallization behaviors in two-pass hot deformed 42CrMo steel. The effects of strain rate, deformation temperature and degree of deformation on the static recrystallization behaviors are significant, while those of the initial austenite grain size are slight.     

Deformation behavior of isothermally forged Ti–5Al–2Sn–2Zr–4Mo–4Cr powder compact

The isothermal deformation behavior of hot isostatic pressed (HIPed) Ti–5Al–2Sn–2Zr–4Mo–4Cr(Ti-17) powder compact was investigated by compression testing in the temperature range of 810–920 °C and constant strain rate range of 0.001–1 s^?1. The true stress–true strain curves of the powder compact exhibit flow oscillation and flow softening phenomenon in both beta field and beta + alpha field. The flow softening behavior is related to the globularization of the primary acicular microstructure and deformation heating. The apparent activation energy for deformation in beta field is estimated to be 149 kJ mol^?1, indicating that the deformation is controlled by diffusion. The high apparent activation energy of 537 kJ mol^?1 for deformation in beta + alpha field may be related to the dynamic recrystallization of the primary acicular microstructure. Constitutive equations with the form of Arrhenius-type hyperbolic-sine relationship are proposed to delineate the peak flow stress as a function of the strain rate and the temperature for isothermal forging HIPed Ti-17 powder compact.     

低合金钢Q345B动态再结晶动力学模型

采用Gleeble-3500热模拟实验机对低合金钢Q345B进行热压缩实验,研究其在变形温度为900～1100℃和应变速率为0.01～10s-1条件下的动态再结晶行为。结果表明:低合金钢Q345B在变形过程中存在动态再结晶现象,且随着温度的升高和应变速率的降低,临界应变越小,动态再结晶越易发生。根据流变应力、应变速率和变形温度的相关性,得到了动态再结晶激活能。通过对热模拟实验数据的分析计算,建立了峰值应变模型,动态再结晶临界应变模型和动态再结晶动力学模型。并对动态再结晶动力学模型进行了误差分析,证明了模型具有较高的精确性。最后,通过所建立的模型分析了变形条件对动态再结晶的影响,验证了实验所得出的在高温、低应变速率下更有利于动态再结晶发生的规律。     

Evolution of Dynamic Recrystallization in 35CrMo Steel During Hot Deformation

To better understand the dynamic recrystallization (DRX) behavior of 35CrMo steel during hot deformation, a series of isothermal compression tests were carried out at different temperatures and strain rates. Using a constitutive equation built from the data obtained and the Arrhenius equation, the activation energy for hot deformation was determined through regression to be 342.69 kJ/mol. A model of the DRX kinetics was also constructed to characterize the influence of accumulated strain, temperature and strain rate on DRX evolution, which revealed that lower temperatures and higher strain rates require greater strain to achieve the same DRX volume fraction. Optical examination of the microstructure after deformation confirmed that this model accurately reflects reality and that grain size varies directly with deformation temperature, but inversely with strain rate.     

35CrMo钢热变形机制的模拟研究

以弯曲镦锻 3 5 Cr Mo钢火车曲轴为例 ,通过将该钢以 90 0℃～ 1 2 5 0℃变形温度 ;0 .0 5 s-1、0 .5s-1、1 .0 s-1的应变速率 ;在 Greeble-1 5 0 0试验机上进行压缩 1 5 %～ 80 %的热变形实验 ,和随后进行的微观组织分析得出了 :材料热变形屈服应力变化模型 ;材料热变形本构关系 ;动态与静态再结晶模型和热加工参数与微观组织变化的相关性资料。描绘了在 1 2 5 0℃ ,应变速率为 1 .0 s-1时 ,3 5 Cr Mo钢热变形应力应变曲线和相应的再结晶组织。通过对 3 5 Cr Mo钢在高温大变形条件下 ,试件内部各区域晶粒尺寸的回归计算 ,验证了该钢热变形晶粒计算模型。所得出的实验结果和计算模型为热成形工艺分析和质量控制提供了科学的依据     

35CrMo钢动态再结晶过程数值模拟与试验研究

以热物理模拟试验研究为基础,得出35CrMo钢发生动态再结晶时的数学模型。采用热一力耦合的弹塑性有限元法对35CrMo结构钢在热变形过程进行了数值模拟。变形的不均匀性导致动态再结晶进行的不等时性,动态再结晶的发生初始于大变形区,随着应变的增加,逐渐向粘着区和自由变形区延伸。同时预测热变形过程的形变量、形变速率和形变温度对再结晶微观组织演变的影响。在一定温度下,再结晶晶粒尺寸的大小与应变速率呈反方向变化,随着变形的进行,试样内的晶粒尺寸趋于细化和均匀化。在一定应变速率下,随着形变温度的降低,再结晶晶粒尺寸趋于细化,导致了锻件的综合性能提高。为了观察显微组织演化过程,对模拟结果进行了金相法验证,模拟结果与实验结果比较吻合,模拟的结果是合理的。     

Simulation of hot compression of Ti–Al alloy

Hot compressive experiments of Ti–45Al–7Nb–0.15B–0.4W (mole fraction, %) alloy canned by 45^# carbon steel were conducted at 1050–1230 °C on Gleeble1500 hot simulator with nominal deformation of 30% and strain rate of 0.01 s⁻¹. The displacement–loading curves were obtained, and the macrostructure and microstructure were observed. The results show that the hot compressive temperature of TiAl alloy must be higher than 1050 °C and lower than 1230 °C with 45^# steel can, and its optimum temperature is 1180 °C. The highest actual deformation of TiAl alloy canned by 45^# steel is 50% with nominal deformation of 30%. The grains after being hotly compressed are flattened and elongated.     

Effect of thermo-mechanical process on the microstructure and secondary-deformation behavior of 22MnB5 steels

22MnB5 steel specimens were deformed at 923 K and 693 K to three strain levels to study the effect of applied strain level on the microstructure and secondary-deformation behavior. As the steel was deformed at 923 K, deformation induced ferrite transformation (DIFT) occurred even when a small strain of 0.044 was applied, and the volume fraction of deformation induced ferrite (DIF) increases with increasing applied strain level. When deformed at 693 K, deformation induced bainite transformation (DIBT) was observed when the applied strain was larger than 0.109. The incubation period for DIFT is shorter than that for DIBT, but the DIBT proceeds much faster than DIFT. Sub-size tensile specimens were cut from the hot deformed 22MnB5 steel specimens, and digital image correlation technique was employed to investigate the secondary-deformation behavior of the sub-size tensile specimens at room temperature. It is found that the appearance of DIF or DIB (deformation induced bainite) decreases the yield strength and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) but increases the elongation and strength–ductility product of the hot deformed 22MnB5 steel specimens compared with the as-quenched 22MnB5 steel specimen with full martensite.     

A multiscale coupled Monte Carlo model to characterize microstructure evolution during hot rolling of Mo-TRIP steel

A multiscale modelling framework has been proposed to characterize microstructure evolution during hot strip rolling of transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel. The modelling methodology encompasses a continuum dislocation density evolution model coupled with a lumped parameter heat transfer model which has been seamlessly integrated with a mesoscale Monte Carlo (MC) simulation technique. The dislocation density model computes the evolution of dislocation density and subsequently constitutive flow stress behaviour has been predicted and successfully validated with the published data. A lumped-parameter transient heat transfer model has been developed to calculate the average strip temperature in the time domain. The heat transfer model incorporates the effect of plastic work for different strain rates in the energy conservation formulation. A coupled initial value problem solver has been developed to integrate the system of stiff ordinary differential equations in the time domain to predict dislocation density and temperature profiles simultaneously. The temporal evolution of microstructure during hot rolling of TRIP steel is simulated by the MC method incorporating thermal and dislocation density data from the continuum models. Simulated microstructural maps, kinetics of recrystallization and grain size evolution have been generated in a 200 × 200 lattice system at different strain rates and temperatures. The simulation code has been implemented in a high-performance grid computing network. The predicted temporal evolution of grain size, recrystallized fractions and flow stress have been validated with the published literature and found to be in good agreement, confirming the predictive capability of the integrated model.     

THE HOT DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR AND DYNAMIC RECRYSTALLIZATION MODEL OF 35CrMo STEEL

The isothermal single-stage compression of 35CrMo structural steel has been carried out by using Gleeble 1500 simulator at the temperature range of 950℃ to 1150℃ and strain rate range of 0.01s-1 to 10s-1. The effect of hot deformation parameters, such as strain rate, deformed temperature and initial grain size on the flow stress behavior was investigated. The activation energy of tested alloy was calculated, which is 378.16kJ/mol; The relationships between the peak stress (σp), the peak stain (εp), the critical strain (εc) and Z parameter were established. The micro structure evolution shows the pre-existing austenite grain boundaries constitute the principal nucleation sites for dynamic recrystallization (DRX), and the initial austenite grain size affects the grain size of DRX slightly. The kinetic mathematical model of DRX of 35CrMo is: XDRX=1-exp(-3.23-2.28) and Ddyn = 2.252× 10Z-0.22.     

Characterization of hot deformation behavior of Haynes230 by using processing maps

The hot deformation characteristics of Haynes230 has been investigated in the temperature range 1050–1250 °C and strain rate range 0.001–10 s^?1 using hot compression tests. Power dissipation map for hot working are developed on the basis of the Dynamic Materials Model. The map exhibits two domains of dynamic recrystallization (DRX): one occurring in the temperature range of 1200–1250 °C and in the strain rate range of 0.001–0.03 s^?1, which associated with grain coarsening; the other occurring in the temperature range of 1100–1200 °C and strain rate range of 0.001–0.01 s^?1, which are the optimum condition for hot working of this material. The average apparent activation energy for hot deformation is calculated to be 449 kJ/mol. The material undergoes flow instabilities at temperatures of 1050–1100 °C and at strain rates of 1–10 s^?1, as predicted by the continuum instability criterion. The manifestations of the instabilities have been observed to be adiabatic shear bands which are confirmed by optical observation.     

Effects of Different Forging Processes on Microstructure Evolution for 316LN Austenitic Stainless Steel

Forging experiments were designed and carried out on a 3150 kN hydraulic press to investigate the effects of different processes on the microstructure evolution for 316LN steel. The forging processes included single-pass (upsetting) and multipass (stretching) deformations, and the experimental results indicated that the average grain size varied with forging processes. Moreover, the size had distinct differences at different positions in the workpiece. Meanwhile, numerical simulations were implemented to study the influence of temperature, strain, and strain rate on microstructure evolution. The results of experiments and simulations comprehensively demonstrated that dynamic, static, and meta-dynamic recrystallization could coexist in the hot forging process and that the recrystallization process could easily occur under the conditions of higher temperature, larger strain, and higher strain rate. Moreover, the temperature had more significant influence on both recrystallization and grain growth. A higher temperature could not only promote the recrystallization but also speed up the grain growth. Therefore, a lower temperature is beneficial to obtain refinement grains on the premise that the recrystallization can occur completely.     

A study of the interactive effects of strain,strain rate and temperature in severe plastic deformation of copper

The deformation field in machining was controlled to access a range of deformation parameters—strains of 1–15, strain rates of 10–100,000 s^?1 and temperatures of up to 0.4 T_m—in the severe plastic deformation (SPD) of copper. This range is far wider than has been accessed to date in conventional SPD methods, enabling a study of the interactive effects of the parameters on microstructure and strength properties. Nano-twinning was demonstrated at strain rates as small as 1000 s^?1 at ?196 °C and at strain rates of ?10,000 s^?1 even when the deformation temperature was well above room temperature. Bi-modal grain structures were produced in a single stage of deformation through in situ partial dynamic recrystallization. The SPD conditions for engineering specific microstructures by deformation rate control are presented in the form of maps, both in deformation parameter space and in terms of the Zener–Hollomon parameter.     

AerMet100超高强钢在热加工过程中的动态再结晶模型研究

为了准确预测AerMet100超高强钢在热加工过程中的微观组织演变,通过系列等温热压缩试验分析了合金在温度为800~1040℃、应变速率为0.01~10s-1、变形量为15~60%的热变形行为,并建立了动态再结晶(DRX)体积分数和晶粒尺寸的DRX模型。通过计算获得了AerMet100钢本构模型中的Zener-Hollomon参数,用于建立DRX模型。通过建立的DRX模型定量预测了热变形参数对合金微观组织演变的影响,结合微观组织观察发现,高温低应变速率和较大的变形程度有利于DRX充分发生,使组织细化和均匀化。模型预测结果与实验结果吻合较好,验证了所建立的DRX模型的准确性。结果表明,建立的DRX模型可以定量预测AerMet100钢在不同变形参数下进行热加工时的微观组织演变规律。     

一种新型冷轧工作辊用高速钢的热变形行为

采用Gleeble-3500热模拟试验机对一种新型冷轧工作辊用高速钢进行了热压缩变形试验,研究了该钢在900～1150℃、应变速率为0.01～10 s-1条件下的动态再结晶行为,测量了该钢的应力-应变曲线并观察了其典型的微观组织,建立了Z参数表达式、热变形方程、峰值应力和峰值应变与Z参数的关系及动态再结晶模型图。结果表明:冷轧工作辊用高速钢的应力-应变曲线表现为动态再结晶型;其热变形激活能为541.4 kJ/mol;峰值应力、峰值应变与Z参数近似成指数关系;随着Z参数的增大,发生动态再结晶的临界应变εp和发生完全再结晶的应变εs均增加。     

Optimization of deformation parameters of dynamic recrystallization for 7055 aluminum alloy by cellular automaton

In order to simulate the microstructure evolution during hot compressive deformation, models of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) by cellular automaton (CA) method for 7055 aluminum alloy were established. The hot compression tests were conducted to obtain material constants, and models of dislocation density, nucleation rate and recrystallized grain growth were fitted by least square method. The effects of strain, strain rate, deformation temperature and initial grain size on microstructure variation were studied. The results show that the DRX plays a vital role in grain refinement in hot deformation. Large strain, high temperature and small strain rate are beneficial to grain refinement. The stable size of recrystallized grain is not concerned with initial grain size, but depends on strain rate and temperature. Kinetic characteristic of DRX process was analyzed. By comparison of simulated and experimental flow stress–strain curves and metallographs, it is found that the established CA models can accurately predict the microstructure evolution of 7055 aluminum alloy during hot compressive deformation.