西藏聂拉木县嘉龙湖冰湖溃决型泥石流危险性评价

冰湖溃决型泥石流是高原山区特殊的地质灾害,以西藏聂拉木县嘉龙湖为例,建立了一套冰湖溃决型泥石流危险性评价方法.以喜马拉雅山区1970—2015年气温波动频次和聂拉木冰湖溃决历史事件预测了未来10年嘉龙湖溃决的时间概率.利用遥感影像识别嘉龙湖上方不稳定冰体的范围和规模,采用美国土木工程师协会推荐公式和修正的三峡库区涌浪计算方法分析了冰川滑坡产生的涌浪规模,从涌浪波压力和越顶水流推力两方面预测了冰碛坝发生失稳的可能性.采用FLO-2D模拟冰湖溃决泥石流的运动过程,以最大流速和泥深表达了嘉龙湖溃决泥石流的危险程度.评价结果表明:2002年嘉龙湖溃决事件与当年气温偏高有关,未来嘉龙湖发生溃决概率高;冰川滑坡激起涌浪能够翻越坝顶,并引起坝体快速侵蚀而溃决;冰湖溃决泥石流对聂拉木县城河道两侧54栋建筑造成威胁.评价方法实现了冰湖溃决型泥石流危险性的定量分析,评价结果对聂拉木县城泥石流防灾具有现实意义.      

藏东南冰湖溃决泥石流灾害及其发展趋势

冰湖溃决泥石流是高山冰湖溃决洪水引起的突发性泥石流,是一种自然灾害现象.西藏冰湖溃决泥石流集中分布于东南部的雅鲁藏布江、波曲及朋曲流域等.冰湖溃决泥石流常形成灾害链对藏东南社会、经济危害严重.分析了气温和降水对冰湖溃决和及其所形成的泥石流的影响,认为冰湖的溃决大部分是由于异常气候条件造成的,冷湿的气候有利于冰川的积累,当气候转为湿热和干热或气温突然升高0.6～1.2 ℃时最易引起冰湖溃决泥石流.通过对西藏地区气候变化的研究,对未来50 a藏东南冰湖溃决泥石流的发展趋势作了预测探讨.一般来讲,气温升高,冰川融水的增加有个临界点,当过了临界点后其冰川融水将会减少,冰湖溃决可能性减少,冰湖溃决泥石流也将减少.也就是说,未来西藏东南部冰湖溃决泥石流的发展趋势,将呈倒"U"字型.冰湖溃决泥石流的发生更多地依赖于突发性的降雨增多.     

青藏高原东南部来古冰湖变化及其溃决洪水评估

冰湖溃决洪水(Glacial lake outburst flood,简称GLOF)灾害是冰川区最常见、危害最大的灾害类型之一,历来是国内外学者研究的关键科学问题。在全球变暖的大背景下,冰川退缩加剧,其下游冰湖扩张快速,湖面升高,溃决风险提高。青藏高原尤其是东南部地区孕育着大量的冰湖,在过去的几十年间,冰湖溃决洪水威胁着当地人民的生产生活。基于LANDSAT遥感影像,本文获取了青藏高原东南部雅弄冰川和来古冰湖1986年、1990年、1994年、1997年、2000年、2003年、2005年、2011年、2013年和2017年共10期湖面面积,并结合实地测量的冰湖水深资料,计算了冰湖对应年份的储水量,建立冰湖面积与储水量变化序列;结合野外调查从冰湖面积与水量变化趋势和突发事件两方面探讨冰湖溃决可能性;利用BREACH模型和SMPDBK模型估算和模拟来古冰湖溃决洪水,做灾害预警分析。结果表明,1986~2017年冰湖上湖变化不大,而来谷下湖处于持续扩张中,面积由1986年的1.151±0.070 km^2扩张至2017年的3.148±0.097 km^2,水量由0.645×10^8 m^3增加至2.143×10^8 m^3,雅弄冰川在1986~2013年持续后退,在2013~2017年突然前进;经讨论其溃决风险得出冰川滑动入湖导致湖水瞬时涌出从而造成溃坝的可能性较高;利用BREACH模型及SMPDBK模型对来古冰湖溃决洪水模拟结果表明,当来古下湖湖水受冰体挤压抬升发生溃决时,溃决洪水将严重威胁然乌镇及其上游居民的生命和财物安全。     

西藏终碛湖溃决形式研究

西藏终碛湖众多,一旦发生溃决,将造成巨大损失。冰湖溃决机制的研究对冰湖溃决预测和溃后灾害评估是十分必要的。将冰湖终碛堤视为天然堆石坝,用水力学和土力学理论研究冰湖溃决的力学机制。重点研究溢流型溃决形式和管涌型溃决形式,根据野外观测数据和前人的研究,发现溢流型溃决的溃口多呈梯形或圆弧状形,对比真实数据发现溃口顶宽与坝高的关系,并且所有冰川终碛堤都表现为局部溃决。通过实地考察、取样分析,判断光谢措终碛堤的可能渗透破坏形式。     

喜马拉雅山中段波曲流域近期冰湖溃决危险性分析与评估

西藏聂拉木县波曲流域内分布有大量的冰湖,对2000/2001年度卫星遥感数据遥感解译获取了冰湖的分布及面积;对比1987年的数据发现,经过15 a流域内冰湖数量和面积均发生了巨大的变化.通过野外考察获取了重要冰湖的溢流状态、冰碛堤稳定性、冰川影响等资料,在此基础上使用直接判别法和冰湖溃决危险性指数(I_dl)进行了冰湖溃决危险性评价,所有冰湖中有9个处于高度危险状态的,3个处于较高危险的,2个处于稳定状态,其余35个处于相对稳定或趋于衰退状态.冲堆普下游、科亚普下游和主河至科亚普汇口以下为高度危险区,塔吉岭普下游、如甲普下游和章藏布下游处于较高危险,其他支沟下游及所有上游区处于冰湖溃决相对安全区.基于危险性评价结果,建议下游根据危险性大小,采取相应的应对措施以减轻冰湖溃决泥石流的危害.     

西藏定日朋曲流域达仓沟冰湖溃决泥石流特征

以西藏朋曲流域达仓沟为研究对象,结合现场调查及遥感解译,总结了达仓沟流域的孕灾背景,再现了冰湖溃决泥石流特征,并在此基础上对该沟溃决泥石流发展趋势进行了分析。研究表明,流域现有冰川8条,冰湖11个,历史上至少爆发过3次大型冰湖溃决泥石流,其中最大的1956年冰湖溃决泥石流沟口峰值流量3 862 m~3/s,流速8. 06 m/s;目前流域内冰川呈现不断缩小的趋势,3处冰湖存在溃决风险,具备了形成泥石流的陡峻地形和丰富松散固体物质的充分条件,发生冰湖溃决泥石流可能性大。     

气温对西藏冰湖溃决事件的影响

西藏冰湖溃决是多因素引发的突发事件。由于溃决冰湖多位于高海拔、人烟稀少的地方,对于其独特的地貌因素、构造成分提取十分困难,所以作者仅研究气温这一易获取的重要因素对西藏冰湖溃决的影响。冰湖溃决与气候的波动变化有着密切联系,在全球平均地表温度持续上升的背景下,研究气温对于西藏冰湖溃决的影响,是十分重要的。考察了西藏的14次溃决事件,结合邻近12个溃决冰湖的9个气象站的年值气象资料和日值气象资料进行分析,发现冰湖溃决是年均温剧烈波动后区域响应的结果,波动越大,冰湖溃决发生的几率越大。还研究了溃决当年和溃决前一年的正积温值(T) 和积温增长速度（积温拟合曲线指数a),发现溃决事件发生当年的正积温值和积温增长速度普遍大于溃决的前一年。根据正积温值与积温拟合曲线指数,建立幂函数曲线公式来界定易溃决事件和不易溃决事件。根据上述分析,推荐选择长序列的正积温值与积温曲线指数,作为考量指标以研究西藏冰湖溃决事件。     

冰湖溃决灾害风险研究进展及其展望

系统回顾了国内外冰湖溃决灾害风险研究现状,结果显示,以往冰湖溃决灾害风险评估研究过多集中于冰湖溃决致灾诱因、特征,溃决危险性评价和溃决概率预测以及溃决洪峰流量及其演进模拟研究等自然风险方面,而承灾区经济社会系统脆弱性、暴露性和适应性风险研究却较为缺乏。因此,开展冰湖溃决灾害综合风险研究,不仅对冰湖溃决危险性评价意义重大,而且对于下游承灾区防灾减灾和预警体系建立也具有重要的理论参考价值。     

基于参数最优地理探测器的西藏冰湖时空变化与影响因素研究

随着全球变暖的加剧,西藏地区冰湖的规模不断扩大,由此可能会发生冰湖溃决自然灾害。本文基于GIS空间分析和参数最优地理探测器方法,分析了西藏地区1990年至2015年间冰湖时空变化以及各环境因子:冰湖海拔、年总降水、年平均温度、年相对湿度、冰川面积变化、GDP、人口密度的影响程度。结果表明:(1)25年间冰湖总数量和总面积的增长率分别为2.57%、6.32%,各个面积大小的冰湖在不同的海拔都有增长,增长最多的是小型冰湖(面积小于0.1 km²),西藏冰湖增长方向性显著,数量分布和面积分布离散程度高,基本分布在西藏东部和南部地区。(2)通过Pearson相关分析,西藏冰湖变化主要受该地区冰川面积变化以及降水量大小影响。(3)地理探测器中,冰川面积变化对冰湖变化影响强度最高,q值为0.5006;交互作用探测中,温度因子与冰川面积变化因子交互作用后对冰湖变化影响解释力最强,且呈非线性增强关系,除温度因子以外,冰湖变化受各因子交互作用影响强度高。     

基于遥感和GIS的喜马拉雅山科西河流域冰湖变化特征分析

受全球气候变暖的影响, 冰川退缩, 冰湖数量增多和面积增大被认为指示气候变化的重要依据, 冰湖面积增大导致其潜在危险性增大. 因此, 研究冰湖的变化对于气候变化和冰湖灾害研究具有重要意义. 基于Landsat TM/ETM+遥感影像采用人工解译的方法, 获取了喜马拉雅山地区科西河流域1990年前后、2000年和2010年的冰湖数据, 并对冰湖面积>0.1 km²且一直存在的199个冰湖的面积和长度变化进行对比分析. 结果表明: 科西河流域内面积>0.1 km²的冰湖的面积呈现增加趋势, 1990年冰湖面积为73.59 km², 2010年冰湖面积增加至86.12 km². 科西河流域内喜马拉雅山南北坡冰湖变化存在差异, 喜马拉雅山北坡变化较大的冰湖主要分布在海拔4 800~5 600 m之间, 而南坡变化较大的冰湖主要分布在海拔4 300~5 200 m之间; 喜马拉雅山北坡的冰湖有65%的冰湖表现扩张, 且扩张冰湖的面积主要是由冰湖在靠近终碛垅的一端基本不发生变化, 而仅在靠近冰川一端发生变化贡献的; 喜马拉雅山南坡的冰湖有32%的冰湖变化表现扩张, 且扩张的冰湖面积主要来自于冰面湖扩张. 在科西河流域内, 位于喜马拉雅山北坡的冰湖平均变化速度略高于南坡的冰湖平均变化速度.     

Glacial hazards in the Rolwaling valley of Nepal and numerical approach to predict potential outburst flood from glacial lake

In recent years, climate change and retreating glaciers constitute a major hazard in the Himalaya of South Asia. Glacial lakes are rapidly developing or increasing due to climate change. The rapid development of the lake may cause outburst of the lake. The outburst discharge from the glacial lake can cause catastrophic flooding and disaster in downstream area. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the impact of climate change on glacial lakes and to understand the characteristics of the glacial lake outburst. In this study, the field assessment of Tsho Rolpa Glacial Lake in the Himalaya of Nepal has been presented and the impact of climate change on this glacial lake has been discussed. The Tsho Rolpa Glacial Lake is the largest and most potentially dangerous glacial lake in Nepal. In addition, a numerical model has been also developed for computing the characteristics of glacial lake outburst due to moraine dam failure by seepage and water overtopping. The numerical model is tested for the flume experimental cases. The simulated results of the outburst discharge, the dam surface erosion, and the temporal variation of the moisture movement in the dam are compared with those obtained from the hydraulic model experiments. The moisture profile calculated by numerical model was agreeable with the experimental moisture profile. The simulated failure surface of the dam due to seepage by considering the suction in slope stability analysis gave more agreeable results than the Janbu's simplified method. The results of the outburst discharge and dam surface erosion also agreed with the experimental results.     

Assessment of potential outburst floods from the Tsho Rolpa glacial lake in Nepal

Flood and sediment disasters caused by glacial lake outbursts have occurred frequently in recent years in the Himalayas of Nepal. Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) can cause catastrophic flooding in downstream areas with serious damage to lives and property. It is thus important to investigate outburst floods from potentially dangerous glacial lakes. In this study, the characteristics of potential outburst floods from the Tsho Rolpa glacial lake due to two types of moraine dam failure caused by seepage flow or water overtopping were analyzed with various scenarios by using integrated modeling system of three numerical models: (1) the flow and bed-surface erosion model, (2) the seepage model and (3) the slope stability model. Flood inundation areas were also identified by using the numerical model of the flow and moraine dam failure and geographical information system tools. Possible threats and damages due to the potential GLOF events from the lake were also analyzed based on numerical results, flood inundation maps and field investigations.     

尼泊尔4·25地震震前冰湖制图与潜在危险性分析

由于地震灾害的影响,冰湖上游的冰滑坡、冰崩、滑坡、泥石流会进入湖泊,通过冲击波或抬高水位,造成冰川坝或冰碛坝突然垮塌导致冰湖迅速排水而形成洪水或洪水泥石流.首先基于Landsat8遥感影像通过人工目视解译的方法构建尼泊尔2015年4月25日地震震前冰湖数据,为我国和尼泊尔的抗震救灾提供重要的数据支撑.然后利用历史遥感数据解译获取研究区2015年以前的历史冰湖数据,对历史冰湖数据和2015年的冰湖数据进行地理空间分析,计算其面积变化和长度变化.最后结合尼泊尔2015年4月25日地震峰值地面加速度数据通过空间分析识别地震影响区的潜在危险冰湖.研究表明:研究区面积0.02 km~2的冰湖有1 847个,面积263.18 km~2,其中快速变化冰湖87个,位于地震影响区的潜在危险冰湖49个,应重点关注潜在危险冰湖.     

A procedure for making objective preliminary assessments of outburst flood hazard from moraine-dammed lakes in southwestern British Columbia

Existing methods of evaluating the hazard posed by moraine-dammed lakes are unsystematic, subjective, and depend on the expertise and biases of the geoscientist. In this paper, we provide a framework for making objective preliminary assessments of outburst flood hazard in southwestern British Columbia. Our procedure relies on remote sensing methods and requires only limited knowledge of glacial processes so that evaluations of outburst flood hazard can be incorporated into routine hazard assessments of glaciated regions. We describe objective approaches, which incorporate existing empirical relations applicable to the study region, for estimating outburst peak discharge, maximum volume, maximum travel distance, maximum area of inundation, and probability. Outburst flood hazard is greatest for moderately large lakes that are impounded by large, narrow, ice-free moraine dams composed of sedimentary rock debris and drain into steep, sediment-filled gullies above major river valleys. We demonstrate the application of the procedure using three case studies and show that flood hazard varies, especially with major changes in lake level. Our assessment scheme yields reproducible results and enables engineers and geoscientists to prioritize potentially hazardous lakes for more detailed field investigation.     

Landslides in moraines as triggers of glacial lake outburst floods: example from Palcacocha Lake (Cordillera Blanca,Peru)

Studies focusing on moraine deposits which slide into glacial lakes are scarce, even though they can trigger impact waves responsible for generating glacial lake outburst floods. We focused on landslides in lateral moraines as possible triggers. Detailed geomorphological, geophysical, and satellite radar interferometric investigations of the Palcacocha Lake moraine (Cordillera Blanca, Peru) together with laboratory tests on samples from the site provided data for slope stability calculations using GeoSlope software and hydrodynamic impact wave modeling using the Iber code. We identified landslides that could affect Palcacocha Lake and calculated their stability (factor of safety) under specified conditions, including variable water saturation and earthquake effects. Calculations showed that the moraine slopes are close to the threshold value (Fs?=?1) for stability and are especially sensitive to water saturation. The height of impact waves triggered by a landslide in 2003 and the potential wave heights from newly identified, possibly active landslides were calculated, based on landslide volume estimates, detailed lake bathymetry, and basin topography. Results show that potential future landslide-triggered waves could have similar properties to the 2003 impact wave. Evidence gathered in this study suggests that glacial lake outburst floods triggered by landslides from moraines, however, would be probably smaller than floods resulting from other types of slope processes (e.g., ice/rock avalanches) if dam breach is not taken into account. This assumption has to be critically evaluated against site-specific conditions at a given lake and any possible environmental factors, such as climate change or earthquake that may mobilize larger volumes of moraine material.     

Monitoring of Bashkara Glacier lakes (Central Caucasus, Russia) and modelling of their potential outburst

Glacier lakes pose threat to downstream settlements and infrastructure. In recent decades the number and area of lakes have been growing at an accelerating rate due to worldwide glacier shrinkage. In the Russian Caucasus this process is understudied. We present results obtained during a 12-year (1999–2010) continuous field monitoring of the Bashkara proglacial lakes group, which we identified as the place with the highest GLOF risk in the region. Recession of the parent Bashkara Glacier was the main driver of the rapid expansion of the lower Lake Lapa. The upper Lake Bashkara has not been enlarging, but its water level has shown significant inter- and intra-annual fluctuations. The lake outburst probability has increased in recent years, and in 2008 we observed surface overflow over the moraine dam. Taking into account that in the late 1950s lake outbursts at this site led to large-scale glacial debris flows, we have simulated a potential outburst using River and FLO-2D software and carried out hazard zonation. An early warning system has been designed and established at Lake Bashkara, and measures to mitigate risk have been proposed. Rapid change of proglacial lakes requires regular monitoring in ‘hot spot’ areas where the GLOF hazard is high and is dynamically changing.     

Threat of glacial lake outburst flood to Tehsil Gupis from Khukush Lake, District Ghizer, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan

Glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) is a powerful natural phenomenon that is very active in the Karakoram and Himalayas. This paper presents a case study from Gupis Tehsil in northern areas of Pakistan that is exposed to GLOFs from nine different glacial lakes in its upper catchment areas. Khukush Lake being the largest of all the glacial lakes has been studied and a flood attenuation model has been created for the whole Gupis Tehsil. This lake covers almost 2.2 km² of surface area, and its calculated volume is 2.6 × 10⁴ m³. In case of its outburst, the peak flow discharge is calculated to be 7,642 m³/s. The catchment area which contributes water and debris to the lake is 170 km². This lake is dammed by a glacial moraine, which is not strong enough to sustain the pressure for a longer period of time. Other factors that are reducing the reliability of the dam are the secondary hazards which are in direct contact with the lake, and in case of their reactivation, they can put severe impacts on the dam. There are eight potential sites of the snow avalanche activity where debris along with snow may fall directly into the lake producing a strong wave. This strong wave of water will increase the pressure on the dam and ultimately will increase the probability for its outburst. The presense of water springs towards the downstream side of the natural dam also indicate the presence of hidden channels passing through the dam which may weaken the shear strength of the dam. Almost 24 villages settled along either sides of the Gupis River are critically studied for the expected flood from Khukush Lake. With few exceptions, almost 20–25 % area of all the villages will be affected from this flood.     

国内外冰碛湖溃决研究进展

末次冰期以来,气候变暖导致全球高山地区的冰川环境变化剧烈,冰碛湖稳定性降低导致溃决频率增加,成为中国、尼泊尔、俄罗斯、秘鲁等10多个国家和地区频繁发生的冰川灾害类型之一。冰碛湖溃决诱发形成的洪水和泥石流,由于规模巨大、成灾速度快和波及范围广等特点,造成下游地区的基础设施和生命财产遭受惨重损失。本文通过对国内外冰碛湖溃决事件、溃决诱因、溃决模式和溃决洪水特征4个方面研究现状和发展现状的梳理和分析,总结经验和思路,从而为冰碛湖溃决研究和评价提供借鉴和参考。     

亚洲高山区冰湖溃决洪水事件回顾

冰湖溃决洪水是由冰湖快速大量释水所导致的自然灾害。在全球变暖背景下,亟待建立完整的冰湖溃决洪水数据库,以进一步对冰湖进行危险性评估和风险管理。整理了亚洲高山区（青藏高原及周边地区）的冰湖溃决洪水资料,得出冰湖溃决洪水主要分布在天山山脉、喀喇昆仑山、喜马拉雅山脉、念青唐古拉山、横断山等区域。20世纪以来,亚洲高山区共计发生冰湖溃决洪水277起,其中冰碛湖溃决洪水113起,冰坝湖溃决洪水164起。导致冰碛湖溃决的诱因以冰-雪崩或冰川滑塌为主导,占50.1%,埋藏冰融化或管涌、强降水或上游来水、滑坡-岩崩以及地震占比分别为23.1%、18.5%、7.4%和0.9%。1980年以来,冰碛湖溃决洪水的发生频率呈较弱的增长趋势;但由于发生溃决的冰湖趋于小型化,其溃决水量与洪峰流量在喜马拉雅山脉、天山山脉等地区呈显著下降趋势。2010—2018年间喜马拉雅山脉中段发生8起冰湖溃决洪水事件,远高于天山山脉、喜马拉雅山脉东段和念青唐古拉山等地区,成为新的高发区,是未来重点关注的地区。在未来冰湖溃决洪水频率可能增加的状况下,相关国家和地区在应对冰川灾害、实现区域防灾减灾等方面需要加强沟通交流,共同建立跨区域协调的防灾体系。