Comparison of amino acid profiles of feeds and fish as a quick method for selection of feed ingredients: a case study for Colossoma macropomum (Cuvier)

The amino acid profile of Colossoma macropomum was determined. Indispensable amino acid levels were similar to those reported in other fish species. Suitability of local, Costa Rican, ingredients as protein sources for C. macropomum was evaluated based on their protein content and indispensable amino acid profile. It was calculated that, in a standard diet (40% protein. 25% fish meal), blood meal, soya meal, poultry byproducts, meat and bone meal, and meat meal can substitute more than 80% of the fish meal. More than 40% of the fish meal can be substituted by shrimp meal, pigeon pea, cotton meal, peanut oil cake, cow pea, corn gluten and water hyacinth. As differences between amino acid profiles between fish species seem to be small, promising alternative ingredients for C. macropomum might be equally interesting for formulation of feeds for other species. Soya meal is the currently used ingredient with the highest potential to substitute fish meal completely. Further research is needed to determine if the use of alternative ingredients is limited by constraints such as decreased feed digestibility, presence of anti-nutritional factors, additional production and processing costs.     

Amino acids composition and protein quality evaluation of marine species and meals for feed formulations in cephalopods

The amino acid composition and protein levels of three species of cephalopods (Octopus vulgaris, Loligo gahi and Todarodes sagittatus), the natural diets of common octopus (O. vulgaris) and different kinds of meals were determined in order to optimise the content of these nutrients in artificial feeds. Arginine, leucine and lysine were the most abundant essential amino acids in cephalopods, while glutamate and aspartate represented the main non-essential amino acids. Arginine and leucine were the limiting amino acid in most samples, with maximum Chemical Score values for mussel (79–98 %), squid (84 %) and crustaceans (65–91 %); medium for fish (41–70 %); and minimum for meals (29–64 %). Mussel, squid, crustaceans and fish showed a high essential amino acid index according to Oser (OI: 88–99 %) suggesting a suitable amino acid balance. The protein from animal meals (fish and krill) covered all the essential amino acids except arginine and lysine in fish meal. The vegetable meal presented the worst amino acid balance (OI: 74–89 %) with several deficiencies in essential amino acids, including arginine, threonine, lysine and methionine. Supplementation with arginine or leucine and protein complementation of crustaceans and bivalves with fish or animal meal are proposed as alternatives for improving the performance of protein in feed for cephalopods.     

南极磷虾粉营养成分的分析与比较

对两种不同来源的南极磷虾粉营养成分进行了分析和评价,并与进口鱼粉的营养成分进行了比较。结果显示,上海开创远洋渔业有限公司开利轮产南极磷虾粉(磷虾粉S)粗蛋白含量为62.89%,高于辽宁远洋渔业有限公司安兴海轮产南极磷虾粉(磷虾粉D)和进口鱼粉的粗蛋白含量,两种磷虾粉粗蛋白质含量分别达到一级品和二级品指标。磷虾粉S、磷虾粉D和进口鱼粉18种氨基酸总量分别为66.36%、57.19%、67.24%,鲜味氨基酸含量较高分别为24.65%、20.69%和25.25%,8种必需氨基酸含量分别为31.43%、21.74%、25.62%,且磷虾粉S必需氨基酸含量明显高于磷虾粉D和鱼粉,磷虾粉S、磷虾粉D和进口鱼粉三种样品必需氨基酸指数(EAAI)分别为57.83、49.89、57.07;磷虾粉S、磷虾粉D和进口鱼粉三种样品脂肪酸中,多不饱和脂肪酸含量较高分别为43.28%、40.25%、46.58%,且磷虾粉S的EPA与DHA的总量(36.14%)高于磷虾粉D(31.30%)及鱼粉(27.65%)。分析结果表明,南极磷虾粉蛋白含量高,且氨基酸组成符合FAO/WHO推荐的蛋白质理想模式,含有丰富的多不饱和脂肪酸,营养价值较高,具有较大的开发利用前景。     

Evaluation of Soybean Proteins as Replacements for Menhaden Fish Meal in Practical Diets for the Red Drum Sciaenops ocellatus

A series of growth trials was conducted to evaluate the use of soy protein as a replacement for fish protein in isonitrogenous practical diets for juvenile red drum Sciacnops ocellatus. Feeds were offered at or in excess of satiation to juvenile red drum maintained at 26–28 C and a salinity of 25–35 ppt. In the first growth trial, red drum were offered one of four diets containing graded levels of menhaden fish meal, replacing solvent-extracted soybean meal and soy-protein isolates. Differences in weight gain, survival and feed efficiency ratios of the fish corresponded to increases in fish meal content of the diets. Due to poor performance of the fish maintained on the low (15%) fish meal diet, a methionine supplement was introduced into this diet at the midpoint of the growth trial. A positive increase in growth indicated a dietary deficiency of methionine and/or total sulfur amino acids in the unsupplemented diet. A positive response to dietary fish meal also occurred in the second growth trial despite the supplementation of L-methionine in the test diets. In low fish meal diets the utilization of solvent extracted soybean meal or a soy-protein isolate resulted in similar growth responses. Hence, the presence of an antinutrient did not likely cause reduced growth rates. In the third feeding trial, weight gain also increased with increasing fish meal content of the diet despite the equalization of digestible protein and selected amino acids. There were no significant differences in whole-body compositions which indicated similar biological value of the diets (protein digestibility, amino acid balance and energy availability). The singular deletion of fish-solubles, glycine, lysine and methionine from the diet containing the lowest level of fish meal (10 g/100 g diet) did not result in significant changes in weight gain. This indicated that these components did not add to the nutritive value and/or palatability of this formulation. The final experiment was designed to evaluate the response of red drum to a control diet (high fish meal) as compared to a low fish meal diet with and without potential attractants/palatability enhancers. Weight gain and feed efficiency ratios of fish offered the low fish meal diet supplemented with seafood flavor or fish flavor #2 were not significantly different from the control (high fish meal diet). Based on the results of this study, with suitable formulation restrictions, soy protein is acceptable for inclusion in practical diet formulations for red drum. However, soy protein itself does not appear replete in sulfur-containing amino acids and does not have acceptable palatability properties. Consequently, feeds containing reduced levels of marine proteins could require suitable attractants and/or amino acid supplements.     

不同饲料蛋白水平下点带石斑鱼对鸡肉粉、羽毛粉和血粉混合物的利用能力

通过10周网箱养殖实验,评价了不同饲料蛋白水平下点带石斑鱼对1种鸡肉粉、羽毛粉和血粉混合物的利用能力。采用2×4实验设计,设2个饲料蛋白水平(490 g/kg和530 g/kg粗蛋白),每个饲料蛋白水平下设4个鱼粉水平,其中1组饲料中加入500 g/kg鱼粉(对照),另外3组饲料中分别加入139、278、416 g/kg的鸡肉粉、羽毛粉和血粉混合物(鸡肉粉∶羽毛粉∶血粉=65∶20∶15)替代对照饲料中30%、60%、90%的鱼粉。实验鱼初始体重为(33.4±0.1) g。实验期间,除恶劣天气外,每天分两次按饱食量投喂实验鱼。实验结果表明,饲料蛋白水平对摄食量、增重,饲料系数、氮储积效率、能量储积效率和鱼体组成无显著影响;饲料鱼粉含量显著影响增重,饲料系数、氮储积效率和能量储积效率,但对摄食量和鱼体组成无显著影响。在相同饲料蛋白水平下,特定生长率(SGR)随鱼粉含量降低而下降;当鱼粉含量相同时,摄食高蛋白饲料的鱼SGR略高于摄食低蛋白饲料的鱼。本实验结果显示,通过添加鸡肉粉、羽毛粉和血粉混合物可将点带石斑鱼饲料鱼粉含量降低到200 g/kg,在490~530 g/kg范围内提高饲料蛋白水平无助于降低点带石斑鱼饲料鱼粉含量。     

Partial Replacement of Fish Meal with Corn Gluten Meal in Diets for Japanese Flounder Paralichthys olivaceus

Abstract.— Feeding experiments were conducted to evaluate corn gluten meal (CGM) as an alternative protein source for fish meal in the diet of Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus . A diet containing 75% white fish meal as a sole protein source was the control, and 20, 40, and 60% of fish meal protein was replaced with CGM protein in the experimental feeds. Juvenile fish of about 8 g initial body weight were fed each diet to apparent satiation twice a day. 6 d per week for 8 wk at 20 C. Survival rates of fish ranged from 98 to 100% and were not significantly different ( P > 0.05) among treatments. Final body weight, weight gain, feed efficiency and protein efficiency ratio of fish fed the diets containing CGM up to 40% substitution levels were not statistically different from those of fish fed the control diet. All production parameters for fish fed the diet replacing 60% of fish meal protein were significantly lower than the control ( P ≤ 0.05). Supplements of crystalline amino acids to the CGM diet improved the nutritive value of the diet. Since substitution up to 40% did not adversely affect hematological and hematochemical parameters as well as whole body composition of the cultured fish, it is suggested that up to 40% of fish meal protein can be replaced with CGM in the diet of juvenile Japanese flounder.     

The effect of dietary protein replacement by crystalline amino acid on growth and nitrogen utilization of turbot Scophthalmus maximus juveniles

A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of partial replacement of dietary fish meal by crystalline amino acids on growth performance, feed utilization, body composition and nitrogen utilization of turbot juveniles.

Four diets were formulated to be isolipidic (12% DM) and isonitrogenous (8% DM). A fish meal based diet was used as control. In the experimental diets, a crystalline amino acid (AA) mixture was used to partially replace fish meal, corresponding to a non-protein nitrogen content of 19, 37 and 56%, respectively (diets 19AA, 37AA and 56AA, respectively). The overall amino acid profile of the experimental diets resembled that of the whole-body protein of turbot. Each experimental diet was fed to triplicate groups of 20 fish (initial body weight of 31.8 g) twice daily to apparent satiation for 42 days. During the trial water temperature averaged 18 °C.

Final body weight, weight gain (g kg ABW^− 1 day^− 1) and specific growth rate were not different between the control and 19AA diet but significantly decreased with the increase of crystalline-AA inclusion from 19 to 56%. Feed intake and feed efficiency of fish fed the control and diet 19AA were similar and significantly higher than those of fish fed the 56AA diet. At the end of the growth trial, there were no significant differences in whole-body composition among groups. Hepatosomatic index was also unaffected by dietary treatments.

Nitrogen retention (g kg ABW^− 1 day^− 1) of fish fed the control and the 19AA diets were similar and significantly higher than that of fish fed the other diets. Expressed as a percentage of the nitrogen intake, N retention was significantly higher with the control than with the 37AA and 56AA diets.

Daily ammonia excretion (mg kg ABW^− 1 day^− 1) of fish fed the control diet was significantly higher than that of fish fed the 37AA and 56AA diets, while daily urea excretion (mg kg ABW^− 1 day^− 1) did not significantly differ among treatments. Non-fecal nitrogen (ammonia + urea) excretion (mg kg ABW^− 1 day^− 1) was significantly higher for fish fed the control diet than in those fed the 37AA and 56AA diets. However, as percent of N intake, ammonia excretion and non-fecal N excretion were significantly higher in fish fed the 56AA diet than in those fed the control and 19AA diets.

Specific activity of glutamate dehydrogenase, alanine and aspartate aminotransferases did not significantly differ among experimental groups.

In conclusion, in diets with an overall amino acid profile resembling that of the whole-body protein of turbot, crystalline-AA may replace 19% of dietary protein without negatively affecting growth performances or feed utilization efficiency. However, higher protein replacement levels of protein-bound-AA by crystalline-AA severely depressed growth performance.     

南极磷虾粉作为鲽形目鱼饲料蛋白源的营养价值评价

分析商品南极磷虾粉、自制酶解磷虾粉的主要营养成分(氨基酸和脂肪酸)组成,同时采用生化方法比较了5种鲽形目鱼肉蛋白的氨基酸组成。以5种鲽形目鱼肉蛋白为参比蛋白,利用必需氨基酸指数、氨基酸比值系数分和关联度分析法评价南极磷虾粉作为鲽形目鱼饲料蛋白源的营养价值,同时对2种磷虾粉的氟含量进行了分析。结果显示,鲽形目鱼肉(干样)中含有16种常见氨基酸,其中,7种为人体必需氨基酸,4种为呈味氨基酸(总量分别为28.52%–38.03%、25.26%–33.56%);5种鲽形目鱼氨基酸组成均符合 FAO/WHO 的理想模式。南极磷虾粉和酶解磷虾粉的粗蛋白分别为60.84%和68.60%,粗脂肪分别为12.08%和10.79%,达到了规定鱼粉的一级品甚至特级品的指标。酶解处理后蛋白含量显著升高(P<0.05),脂肪含量显著下降(P<0.05),灰分含量无差异(P>0.05)。从必需氨基酸指数(EAAI)来看,EAAI 均大于0.95,磷虾粉的必需氨基酸与鲽形目鱼的必需氨基酸拟合度较高。从氨基酸比值系数分(SRC)和关联度分析法来看,2种磷虾粉对于鲽形目鱼的必需氨基酸平衡性较好,相关系数与鱼粉相差不大。氟含量方面,酶解后磷虾粉的氟含量[(331.21±6.70) mg/kg]显著降低(P<0.05),低于欧盟标准(350 mg/kg)。综合来看,2种磷虾粉氨基酸平衡性较好、营养价值较高,是优质蛋白源。     

Partial substitution of fish meal and full-fat soya bean meal with wheat gluten and influence of lysine supplementation in diets for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum)

A 65-day study was undertaken to evaluate the utilization of lysine-supplemented wheat gluten meal as a protein source for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). The performance of the trout fed wheat gluten was compared to that of trout where protein was principally supplied using fish meal and full-fat soyabean meal. Six isonitrogenous diets (approximately 45% crude protein) were formulated. Thus, the reference diet (FS) was based on fish meal and full-fat soya bean meal while a further five diets were formulated with a mixture of wheat gluten and wheat middlings used to isonitrogenously replace approximately 75% and 57% of the full-fat soya and fish meal respectively. Crystalline l -lysine representing 0.00%, 0.29%, 0.58%, 0.87% and 1.16% of the complete diet was then added to the wheat-gluten-based diets. Optimal performance in terms of weight gain and apparent net protein utilization was achieved by the fish fed a wheat-gluten-based diet supplemented with lysine (0.58%) yielding a digestible lysine level of 1.9% of the complete feed. Within the range of supplements provided, lysine digestibility was high. However, at the highest levels of supplemental lysine the relationship between uptake and supplement level was not linear. Additionally, arginine digestibility was not affected by the level of lysine supplementation. However, amongst the wheat-gluten-based diets, optimal performance was associated with a lysine: arginine ratio of 1.1: 1. Despite a lysine: arginine ratio of approximately 1.1: 1, the overall performance of the fish fed the fish-meal-soya-based reference diet was poorer than expected. The results are discussed with respect to optimal patterns of gross and digestible amino acids, lysine-arginine antagonism and the possible relationship between antinutritional factors and the poor performance of the fish fed the fish-meal-soya-based reference diet.     

Use of Cottonseed Meal in Channel Catfish Feeds

Solvent extracted cottonseed meal was substituted for soybean meal in catfish feeds on a nitrogen basis. The feeds, which contained either 0, 10, or 20% cottonseed meal, were formulated to contain about 32% protein and 2.9 kcal digestible energy/g. The fish were reared in 6 m³ net pens suspended in a 1.6 ha earthen pond. Twelve pens (four per treatment) were stocked with 400 fish with an initial average weight of 95 g/fish. All fish were fed to satiation once daily. A sample of 60 fish from each pen was weighed at 76 days to evaluate feed consumption, feed conversion, and weight gain. At the end of the experiment (132 days), fish from each net pen were weighed collectively and samples were taken to determine tissue free gossypol concentrations, proximate composition of fillets, and dressout percentages. There were no significant differences in weight gain, feed conversion, or survival of fish sampled at 76 days or of fish at the end of the experiment regardless of dietary treatment. At 76 days, feed consumption of fish fed the 20% cottonseed meal feed was significantly higher than that of other fish, but there were no significant differences in feed consumption at the end of the experiment. Free gossypol levels were below detectable limits in fish tissue. There were no significant differences in percentage dressout or in body composition, except for a slightly higher ash content in fish fed the feed containing 10% cottonseed meal. It appears that cottonseed meal can be used to partially substitute for soybean meal in catfish feeds. At the present, it is recommended that cottonseed meal be limited to 15% of the catfish diet.     

The utilization of clam waste meal as a protein source for rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri

Solid waste recovered from clam processing wash water was evaluated for its utilization as a replacement protein for fish meal. Three diets, diets 1 and 2 formulated to simulate the Oregon Moist Pellet (OMP) and diet 3 (Rangen), were fed to rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) for eight weeks. The effects of the clam waste meal on fish growth, food conversion, carcass composition and whole body fatty acid content were determined. The clam waste diet supported maximum growth and food conversion. Carcass analysis of moisture, protein and lipid contents were similar among the moist feeds. The dietary levels of 20:5w3 + 22:6w3 and total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were significantly higher in the clam waste diet pellet.     

发酵豆粕部分替代鱼粉后凡纳滨对虾对赖氨酸的需求量

为研究发酵豆粕部分替代鱼粉后,饲料赖氨酸(Lys)水平对凡纳滨对虾生长、体组成与血清生化指标的影响,进而确定凡纳滨对虾对饲料赖氨酸的需要量,实验在基础饲料中分别添加0%、0.25%、0.50%、0.75%和1.00%的晶体赖氨酸配制成5种等氮等脂的实验饲料(含粗蛋白41.5%、粗脂肪7.5%),实测各组赖氨酸含量分别为2.43%、2.65%、2.87%、3.06%和3.24%,记为Lys0、Lys25、Lys50、Lys75和Lys100。选择初始体质量为(2.0±0.1) g的凡纳滨对虾随机分为5组,每组3个重复,每个重复50尾虾,在室内水泥池中进行为期56 d的养殖实验。结果显示,随着饲料赖氨酸水平的提高,凡纳滨对虾的增重率(WGR)和特定生长率(SGR)先升高后降低,在Lys75组达到最高,且该组饲料系数(FCR)最低;凡纳滨对虾成活率不受饲料赖氨酸水平的影响。Lys75组对虾肌肉粗蛋白和粗脂肪含量最高,而对虾肌肉粗灰分和水分含量则不受饲料赖氨酸水平的影响;肌肉必需氨基酸中的赖氨酸、缬氨酸(Val)、异亮氨酸(Ile)、苯丙氨酸(Phe)随着饲料赖氨酸水平的提高呈先升高后降低的趋势。随着饲料赖氨酸水平的提高,血清中谷丙转氨酶(ALT)、谷草转氨酶(AST)活性呈先升高后降低的趋势,甘油三酯(TG)含量呈逐渐升高的趋势,Lys75组超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性显著低于其他各组。对SGR、FCR与饲料赖氨酸水平进行二次曲线拟合分析,结果显示,凡纳滨对虾对赖氨酸的最适需求量分别为2.88%(饲料粗蛋白的6.94%)、2.89%(饲料粗蛋白的6.96%)。本实验通过探讨凡纳滨对虾在该饲料配方条件下对赖氨酸的最适需求量,旨在为其大规模配合饲料的生产提供参考。     

Effects of replacing fish meal with soya protein concentrate on growth,feed efficiency and digestibility in diets for snakehead,Channa striata

Soya bean meal‐based formulated feeds have recently become available for snakehead culture in Vietnam. This study was conducted to determine the appropriate replacement of fish meal (FM) protein by another soya product, soya protein concentrate (SPC), in snakehead (Channa striata) diets. Five iso‐nitrogenous (45% crude protein) and iso‐caloric (19 KJ g^?1) practical diets were formulated to replace 0% (control), 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% of protein FM by protein SPC (100% FM, 40% SPC, 60% SPC, 80% SPC and 100% SPC respectively). A digestibility experiment was also conducted with the same formulated diets with addition of 1% chromic oxide. Fish fed 100% FM and 40% SPC diets had significantly better growth and survival compared with other treatments. Feed intake, feed conversion ratio, protein efficiency ratio and net protein utilization, trypsin and chymotrypsin activities of experimental fish fed 100% FM and 40% SPC diets were significantly higher than those fed other diets. The apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) of the diet and diet components, ADC_diet, ADC_protein and ADC_lipid, of fish fed diet 40% SPC and 100% FM treatment were significantly higher than those of other treatments. The cost/kg fish produced in diets 100% FM and 40% SPC was much lower compared with other treatments. Dietary inclusion levels of SPC in diet above 40% significantly affected fish survival, growth, digestibility and trypsin and chymotrypsin activities, although fish chemical composition was not greatly affected.     

Replacement of Fish Meal with Salicornia Meal in Feeds for Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus

Abstract.— We investigated the use of the halophyte salicornia Sulicornia bigelovii as a replacement for fish meal in feeds containing 35% crude protein for Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus . Five isocaloric, isonitrogenous diets were formulated with salicornia meal to replace 0%. 20%. 40%. 60%. and 80% of the fish meal in the feed. Another diet was formulated entirely from salicornia meal. Diets were fed to three replicate groups of tilapia fingerlings (mean initial weight = 0.5 g/fish) for 6 wk in 40-L aquaria supplied with 22 C well water. Tilapia growth did not differ ( P < 0.05) for fish fed diets in which 0%. 20%. or 40% of the fish meal in the diet was replaced with salicornia meal. Weight gain was reduced when fish were fed diets with higher levels of salicornia meal, and growth was slowest for fish fed diets formulated entirely from salicornia meal. Body fat was reduced and body moisture content was increased ( P < 0.05) for fish fed diets in which more than 80% of the fish meal was replaced with salicornia meal. We conclude that salicornia meal can replace up to 40% of the fish meal in O. niloticus feeds without affecting growth or body composition.     

Effective replacement of protein‐bound amino acids by crystalline amino acids in Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) juveniles

The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of free amino acids to replace protein‐bound amino acids in diets for Solea senegalensis juveniles. For this purpose, fish with 4.26 g mean initial weight were fed during 55 days with diets containing 500 g kg^?1 protein and 100 g kg^?1 lipid, based on fish meal and fish oil as main protein and lipid sources (control diet), or diets where 20%, 35% and 50% of fish meal were replaced by crystalline amino acids, using L‐lysine HCl as lysine source. To access the efficiency of the crystalline lysine source, another diet was formulated with 35% fish meal replacement but using L‐lysine sulphate instead of L‐lysine HCl as lysine source. Overall, growth performance, feed utilization, nutrient retention, whole‐body and amino acid composition did not show significant differences among groups. In conclusion, up to 50% protein‐bound amino acids can be replaced by crystalline amino acids in diets for Senegalese sole juveniles without negative effects in fish performance. Additionally, it was shown that L‐lysine sulphate and L‐lysine‐HCl may be used interchangeably by Senegalese sole juveniles, with the potential economic benefits involved.     

Apparent digestibility coefficients of feed ingredients and their predictability in compound diets for gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata L.

Apparent digestibility of crude protein, amino acids, lipid, carbohydrate and energy was measured for a range of feed ingredients fed to gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata L. — fish meal, poultry meal, meat meal, blood meal, squid meal, extracted soyabean and wheat flour. Chromic oxide was used as a non-absorbed reference substance and faeces were collected by stripping. Diets compounded from mixtures of these ingredients were then used to examine the possibility of predicting the digestibility of formulated diets.
Apparent digestibility of crude protein ranged from 79% to 90%, lipids from 83% to 95% and energy from 72% to 88% in the different ingredients. Apparent digestibility of carbohydrates was lower and ranged from 49% to 77%. Apparent digestibility of amino acids was higher than that of crude protein and differences were found among digestibilities of individual amino acids.
Tests conducted using five compound diets indicated that ingredient digestibility was additive for protein, amino acids, lipids and energy, whereas the digestibility of carbohydrates in the compound feeds was slightly lower than predicted.
Diets for Sparus aurata may thus be formulated on the basis of digestibility of individual ingredients.     

Effect of feeding level on feed losses and feed utilization of soya and fish meal diets in Colossoma macropomum (Cuvier)

Juvenile, 1-g Colossoma macropomum (Cuvier) were fed two different diets: one with fish meal and another with soya meal as the main dietary protein source. Both diets were provided at ad libitum feeding level, and at two restricted feeding levels of ～ 80% and 60% of the ad libitum level. The experiment was performed in 30 aquaria, each stocked with 12 fish. For each treatment (two diets X three feeding levels), there were five replicates. Fish were fed three times daily at 0900, 1300 and 1700 h. At sampling days (days 14, 29, 44) in each aquarium in one of these feedings, chromic-oxide-marked feed was used. Shortly after the last meal, fish were weighed and four fish were taken from each aquarium for determination of the chromic oxide content in their digestive tract. Fish fed the fish meal diet attained a higher weight but had a lower body protein content. At the ad libitum feeding level, feed intake of the fish meal diet was higher, but feed and protein utilization efficiency were lower than with the soya diet. However, statistical analysis of the data of both the ad libitum and the two restricted feeding levels revealed that the reduced voluntary feed intake of the soya diet was the cause of its better utilization with ad libitum feeding. There is no evidence that soya protein is more freely available than fish meal protein. The chromic oxide data showed that 15 min after feeding, all of the feed (99.8%) could be traced back in fish fed the lowest feeding level, while at the ad libitum feeding level the recovery was only 72%. These data confirmed the hypothesis that at high feeding levels, considerable amounts of feed remain uneaten. Feed losses were not significantly different between the two diets. The chromic oxide recovery data of the 0900 h and 1300 h feedings showed that the feed passage rate in the digestive tract was similar for the three different feeding levels. Due to the high feed losses at high feeding levels, the relation between feed ration and feed utilization is determined mainly by the percentage of feed losses at the different feed rations.     

The Effects of Substituting Selected Oilseed Protein Concentrates for Fish Meal in Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss Diets

Three oilseed protein concentrates (soybean, canola, and sunflower) were evaluated to determine their potential, when supplemented with deficient essential amino acids, to partially or completely replace fish meal in diets fed to rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss . Triplicate aquaria of juvenile trout (average weight of 12 g) were fed the experimental diets for 10 wk, at which time the average weight of the fish was approximately sixfold higher than the initial weight. Average fish weight gains on diets in which the protein component was 100% fish meal; 75% fish meal, 25% soybean protein concentrate; 50% fish meal, 50% soybean protein concentrate; and 75% fish meal, 25% sunflowerseed protein concentrate were not significantly different ( P < 0.05). The average weight of fish fed a commercial feed was significantly lower than that of fish fed the 100% fish meal diet, but not significantly different from fish fed the three other formulations mentioned above. Fish fed diets containing 50% fish meal, 50% canola protein concentrate; and 25% fish meal, 75% sunflowerseed protein concentrate had significantly lower average final weights than those of fish fed the other diets. Feed conversion ratio patterns among the dietary treatment groups reflected those of weight gain. Fish survival exceeded 95% on all diets. Apparent protein digestibility coefficients ranged from 79.5% (75% soybean protein concentrate, 25% canola protein concentrate) to 90.6% (100% soybean protein concentrate). The results of this study demonstrated that certain oilseed protein concentrates have good potential as protein sources in rainbow trout feeds when properly supplemented with essential amino acids.     

Growth, feed efficiency, digestibility and nutrient distribution in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) fed two different fish meal qualities at three dietary levels of vegetable protein sources

Atlantic cod were fed six diets where the ratio of protein from fish meal to vegetable protein were varied from 91%, 67% to 46%, respectively. The experimental groups were performed in triplicate in a 20 week growth trial, increasing fish weight from about 167 g to 690 g. The vegetable protein sources constituted full-fat soybean meal and corn gluten meal at a fixed ratio of 1:2, and replaced either a high quality fish meal (DC_Mink 92.3%) or a lower quality fish meal (DC_Mink 85.6%) in the diet. All diets were extruded and balanced to be equal in gross energy, crude protein, lipid, carbohydrate, lysine and phosphorus. No difference in growth (SGR 1%) was observed comparing the two fish meal qualities. However, feed intake was significantly higher (9%) and feed efficiency lower (10%) for lower quality fish meal compared to high quality fish meal. Protein and amino acid digestibility was significantly reduced in the lower quality fish meal, while unaffected by vegetable protein inclusion for both fish meal qualities. Protein utilization as measured by protein efficiency ratio and net protein value was not affected by fish meal inclusion, except in the diet using lower quality fish meal and high vegetable protein inclusion. Lipid and energy digestibility was significantly reduced by vegetable protein inclusion for both fish meals. The lower fish meal quality increased lipid deposition in the liver and affected slaughter quality of cod by increasing HSI and dressing out percentage at low and intermediate substitution levels. Muscle composition showed small dietary changes except for arginine, while liver fatty acid composition clearly reflected fatty acid profile of full-fat soya in the diets. Corn gluten meal and full-fat soybean meal (2:1) can replace approximately 50% of dietary protein without affecting feed intake, growth, protein digestibility or slaughter quality of cod when exchanging high quality fish meal. For the lower quality fish meal diets some lower inclusion of vegetable protein sources seem to be acceptable.     

Soybean meal and wheat flour,proper dietary protein sources for optimal growth of snail (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Semisulcospira coreana</Emphasis>)

A 10-week feeding experiment was conducted to determine the proper dietary protein source for optimal growth performance of juvenile snails, Semisulcospira coreana. Sixteen isonitrogenous (31% crude protein) and isocaloric (4.2 kcal/g DM) experimental diets (designated as FM, F-FM, SBM, F-SBM, WF, F-WF, SSM, F-SSM, SCR, F-SCR, UP, F-UP, FWP, F-FWP, MIX and F-MIX) were formulated to contain 41% fish meal, 42% fermented fish meal, 59% soybean meal, 55% fermented soybean meal, 55% wheat flour with 26% fish meal, 55% fermented wheat flour with 29% fish meal, 50% sesame seed meal with 10% fish meal, 50% fermented sesame seed meal with 11% fish meal, 55% soya-curd residue or fermented soya curd residue with 25% fish meal, 50% Undaria powder or fermented Undaria powder with 24% fish meal, 50% freshwater plant with 29% fish meal, 50% fermented freshwater plant with 28% fish meal, a mixture of 8% soybean meal, 10% wheat flour, 8% sesame seed meal, 8% soya-curd residue, 8% Undaria powder and 8% freshwater plant with 17% fish meal, and 50% the fermented mixture with 16% fish meal, respectively, as dietary protein sources. Juvenile snails (average weight, 32 ± 0.7 mg) were randomly distributed in forty-eight 25-L aquaria (16 L water each) in a flow-through system at a density of 130 snails per aquarium. Three replicate groups of snails were fed one of the experimental diets ad libitum once per day for 10 weeks. At the end of the feeding experiment, survival of snails was above 98% and not significantly different among the dietary treatments. The best final body weight was observed in snails fed the SBM and WF diets. There were no significant differences in final body weight of snails fed the F-SBM, WF, F-WF and MIX diets, but the value was higher than that of snails fed the FM, F-FM, FWP and F-FWP diets. The lowest value was observed in snails fed the SSM, F-SSM, SCR and F-SCR diets. Whole body protein and lipid contents of snails varied with dietary protein sources. Amino acid composition of whole body was altered by dietary protein sources. The results of the present study indicate that dietary protein sources significantly influence proximate and amino acid composition, and growth performance of snails. Fermentation with ferminpan instant brown yeast does not improve nutritional quality of the protein sources, and soybean meal and wheat flour in combination with fish meal could be potential protein sources in feeds for juvenile snails.