Cyclic overaging pre-weld heat treatment of Rene 80: effect of solution treatment and end aging temperatures

Abstract

The present work investigated the effect of a cyclic overaging pre-weld heat treatment proposed by Lim (US Patent no. 5 509 980, 1996) on the microstructure, tensile ductility, and weldability of Rene 80 nickel based superalloy (approximate composition 60Ni–14Cr–9.5Co–4Mo–5Ti–3Al– 0.17C–Zr–B, wt-%), with a focus on the role of solution treatment and end aging temperatures. The results showed that maximum ductility corresponds to a microstructure consisting of very coarse and widely spaced γ', with fine γ' not resolvable even at a magnification of × 10 000. This was achieved by cyclic cooling the material from the solution temperature to a temperature in the range 500–750 ° C followed by fast furnace cooling to suppress the precipitation of fine γ'. The solution treatment temperature was found to control the number density of coarse γ', which, in turn, slightly influenced the optimum end aging temperature. After the optimum cyclic overaging heat treatment with a solution temperature of 1080°C and an end aging temperature of 550°C, the material exhibited a tensile type fracture path with a high registered tensile ductility of ~ 30% in elongation. Fractographic studies revealed that the necked γ ligaments were thicker and taller, with an increased frequency of cleaved coarse γ' occurring at different levels in the material. Precision welding tests showed that the weldability of the optimally overaged alloy was significantly improved, owing to both the resultant soft and ductile base metal and the reduced heat affected zone size.     

Effect of process parameters on microstructural variables of a commercial TC6 titanium alloy disc

Abstract

The interaction between the deformation behaviour and the microstructure evolution is the main characteristic in the forging process of titanium alloy and this interaction is researched using finite element (FE) simulation. Coupled simulation of deformation behaviour with microstructure evolution has been carried out by means of a new constitutive equation presented by Li et al. (Mater. Sci. Technol., 2004, 20, 1256–1260). The effect of deformation temperature, hammer velocity,height reduction and shear factor on the microstructure variables, including grain size and volume fraction, has been studied in the forging process of the TC6 titanium alloy disc with deformation temperatures of 880–940°C, hammer velocities of 1·2–12 000 mm min^?1 and shear factor (m) of the friction of 0·1–0·4. The simulated results show that deformation temperature, hammer velocity and height reduction have a significant effect on themicrostructure evolution and this effect is more significant on the microstructure evolution in hot forging than that in isothermal forging. The simulated results are in good agreement with the experimental results.     

Microstructural evolution and tensile behaviour of medium carbon microalloyed steel processed through two thermomechanical routes

Abstract

A multiphase microstructure was obtained in a medium carbon microalloyed steel using two step cooling (TSC) from a lower than usual finish forging/rolling temperature (800–850°C). A low temperature anneal was then used to optimise the tensile properties. A multiphase microstructure (ferrite–bainite–martensite) resulted from forging as well as rolling. These were characterised using optical and scanning and transmission electron microscopy. X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy and hardness measurements were used for phase identification. Tensile properties and work hardening curves were obtained for both the forged and the rolled multiphase variants. A Jaoul–Crussard (J–C) analysis was carried out on the tensile data to understand the basic mode of deformation behaviour. Rolling followed by the TSC process produced a uniform microstructure with a very fine grain boundary allotriomorphic ferrite, in contrast to the forged variety, which contained in addition coarse idiomorphic ferrite. The volume fraction of ferrite and its contiguity ratio in the rolled microstructure were greater than in the forged grade. The rolled microstructure exhibited a better combination of strength and toughness than that of the forged material. The rolled steel work hardened more than the forged variety owing to its fine, uniform (bainite–martensite and ferrite) microstructure. Retained austenite present in these steels underwent a strain induced transformation to martensite during tensile deformation. The J–C analysis of the work hardening rates revealed typical three stage behaviour in both varieties during tensile deformation.     

Investigation on microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti14 alloy after semisolid deformation

Abstract

This study details the development of microstructure of Ti14 alloy as a function of the forging temperature and forging ratio in semisolid state and influence of resulting microstructure on the mechanical properties. The results reveal that dynamic recrystallisation occurred during semisolid forging, and the grain refinement was attained. Grain size increased in the forging temperature and decreased in the forging ratio. High ultimate tensile strengths and low elongation have been achieved after semisolid forging. The strength decreased with increasing forging temperature, while the ductility increased with increasing forging ratio. The relative contributions of tensile properties were attributed to the varieties of grain size obtained by thixoforging.     

Microstructure evolution of different loading zones during TA15 alloy multi-cycle isothermal local forging

The microstructure evolution of the TA15 Ti-alloy in different loading zones under two kinds of multi-cycle isothermal local forging (multi-cycle local near-β forging and multi-cycle conventional forging combined with near-β heat treatment) was investigated and the mechanical properties predicted. Under the first processing route, a microstructure with small grain size was obtained with a significant difference in morphology and composition between the first and second loading zones. An equiaxial microstructure with larger size and more α-phase was obtained in the first loading zone. In the second loading zone when cooled by water after multiple forging cycles and a tri-modal microstructure (finely interlaced and disordered lamellar α, transformed β matrix, and a few equiaxed α) was obtained. The second loading zone possesses excellent room and high temperature mechanical properties. Under the second processing route, the relatively large bimodal microstructures in both loading zones are almost identical. When treated using a vacuum annealing furnace after forging, a coarse clustered lamellar secondary α-phase appeared, which has poor mechanical properties.     

锻造变形量对FeNi基奥氏体合金力学性能的影响

研究了最后一火锻造变形量对FeNi基合金微观组织和性能的影响.结果表明,变形量为10%时合金中出现孪晶,其数量随着变形量的增大而增多.随着最后一火锻造变形量的增大,室温拉伸强度因晶粒细化而提高;但是,变形量大于15%后,室温塑性因孪晶对晶内滑移的阻碍作用和晶界碳化物对晶界结合力的削弱而降低;变形量大于10%时高温强度和塑性下降,其原因是孪晶与晶界相交阻碍了晶界滑动,相交部分在外力作用下易产生应力集中导致裂纹萌生并沿晶界扩展.     

复合包套轧制工艺对难变形高温合金GH720Li组织的影响

研究了复合包套轧制工艺对难变形高温合金GH720Li组织的影响.结果表明:采用复合包套变形可以有效控制合金的轧制温度,减少轧辊与钢锭的摩擦力,改善难变形合金的表面质量及变形组织均匀性,防止轧制过程开裂.随着轧制变形量的增大,铸态GH720Li合金粗大的柱状树枝晶组织充分破碎,热变形后合金轧态晶粒度为ASTM5级,一次γ′相尺寸约为0.46μm,同时消除了低倍粗晶现象.经过热处理后GH720Li合金晶粒度为ASTM4级,改善了强化相γ′相的大小、数量及其分布状态,获得了良好的力学性能.     

Effect of martensite content,its dispersion,and epitaxial ferrite content on Bauschinger behaviour of dual phase steel

Abstract

Dual phase microstructures were produced in a low carbon steel, in which the martensite volume fraction was kept constant at two levels, of 18 and 25%, while the epitaxial ferrite content was varied independently. The microstructures were produced with two dispersions of martensite, a relatively coarse dispersion by intercritical annealing of a ferrite/pearlite starting microstructure and a finer dispersion from an initial martensitic microstructure. Bauschinger tests were conducted using prestrains in both tension and compression of 0.4, 1, and 2.2%. Prestrain direction had no measurable effect on plastic flow behaviour after strain reversal. Mean back stresses increased with increasing strain and martensite content, and were higher for the finer martensite dispersion. They decreased significantly with increasing epitaxial ferrite content in the case of the finer dispersion, but less significantly in the coarser dispersion. These effects of microstructure are discussed in terms of stress transfer to martensite, work hardening, and tensile properties. It is concluded that about half of the mean back stress developed during early plastic deformation was generated by stress transfer to the martensite, the remainder arising from strain hardening of the matrix. A small permanent softening in the Bauschinger test resulted from a reduction of effective stress in the ferrite matrix when the strain path was reversed.     

摩托车主轴断裂失效分析

摩托车主轴在渗碳淬火热处理后校直时发生断裂,采用化学成分分析、金相检验、硬度测试及断口宏、微观分析等方法对断裂主轴进行了分析。结果表明：因为该主轴棒料冷挤压加工成形后轴表面附近区域产生的大量塑性变形已经达到了临界变形量,而主轴坯件冷锻后未按技术要求进行正火处理,使渗碳淬火热处理的原始组织不符合要求,从而导致主轴在渗碳加热过程中轴边缘区域发生再结晶转变,形成了极粗大的等轴晶粒区域,该区域经淬火和低温回火后形成了脆性大、硬度偏高的极粗大的回火板条马氏体组织,最终使得主轴在校直时的过高外力作用下发生脆性断裂。     

Effect of hot working variables on microstructure and brittle to ductile transition in Ti–46.5Al–3Nb–2Cr–0.2W gamma titanium aluminide

Abstract

The microstructure and mechanical properties of a γ-TiAl alloy (Ti–46.5Al–3Nb–2Cr–0.2W, in at.-%) were studied in two conditions: (a) after conventional forging in the +γ phase field and (b) after subsequent isothermal forging in the ₂+γ phase field. Tensile tests were conducted in the temperature range 800–1000°C and strain rate range of 10^-3–10^-1 s^-1. The microstructure of the alloy in condition 1 was non-homogeneous consisting of about 90 vol.-% of small γ grains (grain size of 3 to 20 µm) and 10 vol.-% of coarse grains or lamellar regions. The alloy in this condition showed a brittle to ductile transition at about 950°C and extensive cavitation during deformation above the transition temperature. The microstructure in condition 2 was much more uniform and finer, and the transition temperature was decreased to 850°C. The alloy in condition 2 showed better deformability and cavitation resistance than that in condition 1 and superplastic behaviour at temperatures 900–1000°C.     

Assessment and modelling of isothermal forging of intermetallic compounds Part 1 – TiAl

Abstract

In this, the first of four papers concerned with the isothermal forging of intermetallic compounds, Ti–48Al–2Mn–2Nb (at.-%), an alloy based on the γ-TiAl intermetallic phase, has been deformed over the temperature and strain rate ranges 1050–1125°C and 3·0 × 10^-4–3·0 × 10^-2 s^-1 respectively. Examination of the stress–strain curves shows an increase in flow softening behaviour with increasing temperature and decreasing strain rate, contrary to what might have been expected. Forged microstructures indicate that grain refinement via dynamic recrystallisation has occurred, resulting in a fine, almost fully γ microstructure. Constitutive data calculated from initial stress–strain curves (for example activation energy of deformation and strain rate sensitivity) have been used to model deformation behaviour with a reasonable degree of success.     

Design and mechanical property analysis of ultrafine grained gears from AA5083 previously processed by equal channel angular pressing and isothermal forging

In this present study, the isothermal forging of two different gears is carried out from material previously deformed by the severe plastic deformation (SPD) process known as Equal Channel Angular Pressing (ECAP). At present, there are only a few studies which use this material predeformed that exhibits improved mechanical properties as a result of the SPD process for use in subsequent processes or applications. The design and optimization of the die geometry required for the isothermal forging of gears are shown and both microhardness and microstructure are compared when these forged gears are obtained from annealed material (N0) and ECAP-processed material (N2). With this present research work, it is demonstrated that there is an improvement in forgeability and microhardness as well as a decrease in the grain size of the material predeformed by SPD.     

Microstructures and Tensile Properties of Isothermally-forgedTi-47Al-2Nb-1Cr-1V and Ti-47Al-2V-1Cr Alloys

Microstructures and room-temperature tensile properties of isothermally-forged γ-base (γ + α2)alloys in Ti-Al-Nb-Cr-V system with different heat treatments were investigated. The results show that the microstructures of Ti-47Al-2Nb-1Cr-1V and Ti-47Al-2V-1Cr (at. pct) alloys are mainly determined by heat treating temperature in the (cr + 7) tWo-phase field, and the joint additions of Nb, Cr and V in the Ti-47Al alloy afFect Ta significantIy. The microstructure of Ti-47Al alloy with additions of Nb, Cr and V (1~2 at. pct) can be dupIex or nearly-lamellar by a suitable heat treatment after isothermal forging at 1000℃ for over 50% plastic strains.Therefore its tensile properties can be improved at room temperature.     

Effect of processing parameters on shear bands in non-isothermal hot forging of Ti -6Al -4V

Abstract

The alloy system Ti- 6Al- 4V is the prominent Ti alloy system for aerospace and biomedical applications, as a result of its mechanical property balance and biocompatibility. Since the mechanical characterisation of Ti- 6Al- 4V is strongly sensitive to processing parameters there is relationship between processing variables, i.e. strain rate and temperature, microstructure, and properties under different loading conditions. Two phase (α + β) titanium alloys undergo flow instabilities and are susceptible to shear bands or regions of localised deformation crossing many grains during hot forging under non-isothermal conditions (dies and workpiece at different temperatures). Under such conditions shear bands can be generated even in materials without flow softening attributes. This occurs if the forging parameters lead to large amounts of heat transfer between the dies and the workpiece. This study investigates the occurrence of shear bands during non-isothermal, hot forging of Ti -6Al- 4V in order to evaluate the process parameters that generally lead to shear bands in conventional hot forging of metals. Upset compression tests on cylindrical specimens were conducted in a mechanical press and lateral side pressing tests on long, round bars were performed in either a mechanical press or a hydraulic press. The tests ranged from axisymmetric to plane strain compression. In upset specimens shear bands occurred at an angle of 45° to the compression axis and bands of intense deformation separated chill zones from the deforming bulk. Observation also demonstrated that the fracture might be owing to microvoids nucleated at weak points in sections of the shear surfaces. For plane strain deformation, shear bands were found to initiate along zero extension directions in a manner analogous to the formation and propagation of shear bands in isothermal hot forging. Although the shear band features at hot forging temperatures were similar to each other, there was a difference in the hardness and thickness of the shear bands depending on deformation mode, amount, and temperature.     

Modelling hot deformation of Inconel 718 using state variables

Abstract

A dislocation density based state variable model has been developed to describe the characteristic flow stress behaviour during hot deformation of polycrystalline superalloy Inconel 718. Model equations have been formulated to describe the role of the evolving microstructures on the macroscopic flow stress response to deformation. Following a peak in the flow stress associated with strain hardening, the model utilises mechanisms associated with dynamic recovery and recrystallisation to explain the gradual decrease in flow stress with continued deformation. Incorporation of these microstructure based state variables also enables prediction of microstructures associated with a range of hot deformation conditions. Model flow stress predictions have been validated against isothermal uniaxial compression tests conducted over a range of temperatures and strain rates relevant to industrial forging conditions.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of C–Si–Mn(–Nb) TRIP steels after simulated thermomechanical processing

Abstract

Continuous and discontinuous cooling tests were performed using a quench deformation dilatometer to develop a comprehensive understanding of the structural and kinetic aspects of the bainite transformation in low carbon TRIP (transformation induced plasticity) steels as a function of thermomechanical processing and composition. Deformation in the unrecrystallised austenite region refined the ferrite grain size and increased the ferrite and bainite transformation temperatures for cooling rates from 10 to 90 K s^-1. The influence of niobium on the transformation kinetics was also investigated. Niobium increases the ferrite start transformation temperature, refines the ferrite microstructure, and stimulates the formation of acicular ferrite. The effect of the bainite isothermal transformation temperature on the final microstructure of steels with and without a small addition of niobium was studied. Niobium promotes the formation of stable retained austenite, which influences the mechanical properties of TRIP steels. The optimum mechanical properties were obtained after isothermal holding at 400°C in the niobium steel containing the maximum volume fraction of retained austenite with acicular ferrite as the predominant second phase.     

Analysis of high flow stress and microstructural evolution of TC6 titanium alloy during isothermal forging

Abstract

Elevated temperature true stress – strain curves have been determined for the isothermal deformation of a TC6 titanium alloy using hot compression testing in the deformation temperature range 800 – 1040°C, strain rate range 0.001 – 50 s^-1 and reduction in height of 30 – 50%. The experimental results show that the flow stress of TC6 titanium alloy is strongly dependent on process parameters, especially on the deformation temperature and strain rate. The peak stress and steady stress of such an alloy have the same characterisation, which increases with higher strain rate and lower deformation temperature. During isothermal forging, microstructural characterisation, including volume fraction, grain size, and grain pattern of prior α phase, varies with different temperatures, height reductions, and strain rates.     

Residual stresses and structural changes generated at different steps of the manufacturing of gears: Effect of banded structures

Banded ferrite-pearlite structures, and in general chemically inhomogeneous structures, react non uniformly to elevated temperatures during forging and/or subsequent heat treatment processes, affecting the final stress state (plastic deformation is required to accommodate dissimilar thermal expansion behavior for each phase) and consequently leading to distortions. These unpredicted distortions are one of the major causes of rejected components and components that need to be reworked, leading to production losses.The aim of the present research work is to study the effect of forging and different thermal treatments (normalizing, quenching and tempering), i.e., the effect of different steps of the manufacturing of gears, on the final residual stress state, microstructure and hardness of AISI 4140 steel, a material that frequently presents ferrite-pearlite banded structures coming from segregation of alloying elements (such as chromium and carbon). With this purpose, portions of a forged AISI 4140 steel ring have been subjected to different thermal treatments. Residual stresses, hardness and microstructure after each treatment (forging, normalizing, quenching and tempering) have been studied experimentally and compared with the predictions of FEM simulations of heat treatment processes.     

Assessment and modelling of isothermal forging of intermetallic compounds Part 2 – Ti3 Al

Abstract

In this, the second of four papers devoted to the isothermal forging of intermetallic compounds, the Ti₃ Al based alloy Superalpha-2 has been deformed in compression at constant strain rate, over temperature and strain rate ranges of 900–1050°C and 0·0003–0·035 s^-1, respectively. Calculation of the material property parameters suggests that this material deforms via dynamic recrystallisation of the B2 phase. Microstructural examination has shown that isothermal forging generates non-equilibrium microstructures. Deformation modelling has been successful in predicting the forging behaviour. Finally, the possibility of explosive grain growth immediately after forging raises questions as to whether the mechanical properties of this material can usefully be controlled by isothermal forging.     

大型连杆分模面混晶及粗晶魏氏组织

采用化学成分分析、力学性能检测和显微组织分析等方法对锻后又增加了展宽热矫工艺的连杆进行了分析,同时对其锻造工艺进行了探讨.结果表明,由于连杆锻后宽度尺寸不够,在增加了热矫形工序后造成其变形量处于临界变形区,导致分模面切边带区出现严重的混晶和魏氏组织.