Fault-tolerant routing in mesh architectures

It is important for a distributed computing system to be able to route messages around whatever faulty links or nodes may be present. We present a fault-tolerant routing algorithm that assures the delivery of every message as long as there is a path between its source and destination. The algorithm works on many common mesh architectures such as the torus and hexagonal mesh. The proposed scheme can also detect the nonexistence of a path between a pair of nodes in a finite amount of time. Moreover, the scheme requires each node in the system to know only the state (faulty or not) of each of its own links. The performance of the routing scheme is simulated for both square and hexagonal meshes while varying the physical distribution of faulty components. It is shown that a shortest path between the source and destination of each message is taken with a high probability, and, if a path exists, it is usually found very quickly     

移动社会网络中基于社区的消息机会传输策略

移动社会网络是一种由大量具有社会特征的节点组成的机会网络.已有的基于社区的路由算法大多选用社会性最优的节点参与转发,而没有考虑到社区分布对节点移动的影响,将这些算法直接用于移动社会网络中会导致网络资源消耗高、传输成功率低等问题.针对这些问题,提出一种基于社区的消息机会传输算法,在社区间根据节点到目标社区的传输概率选择社区间的最优传输路径,在社区内选择与目标节点相遇概率较高的节点完成社区内传输.仿真实验结果表明,在移动社会网络中,该算法与 Prophet,Spray and Wait 等经典算法相比,提高了消息传输成功率,降低了网络开销.     

GAER: genetic algorithm-based energy-efficient routing protocol for infrastructure-less opportunistic networks

In infrastructure-less opportunistic networks (Oppnets), the routing of messages is a challenging task since nodes are not aware of the network topology and they look for an opportunity to send the message by finding or predicting a best temporary path at each hop towards the destination. As nodes perform various computations for next hop selection, a lot of battery power gets consumed, which in turn reduces the network lifetime. Thus, there is a clear demand for routing protocols for such networks which are energy-efficient and consume lesser power of nodes in forwarding a message. In this paper, a novel routing protocol named genetic algorithm-based energy-efficient routing (GAER) protocol for infrastructure-less Oppnets is proposed. This protocol uses a node’s personal information, and then applies the genetic algorithm (GA) to select a better next hop among a group of neighbour nodes for the message to be routed to the destination. With the application of GA, optimal results are obtained that help in the selection of the best possible node as the next hop, which in turn, leads to prolonged battery life. Simulation results show that GAER outperforms the Epidemic, PROPHET, and Spray and Wait protocols in terms of messages delivered, overhead ratio, average residual energy, and number of dead nodes. The results obtained for average latency and average buffer time using GAER are comparable to those obtained for the aforementioned protocols.     

A theory of deadlock-free adaptive multicast routing in wormholenetworks

A theory for the design of deadlock-free adaptive routing algorithms for wormhole networks, proposed by the author (1991, 1993), supplies sufficient conditions for an adaptive routing algorithm to be deadlock-free, even when there are cyclic dependencies between channels. Also, two design methodologies were proposed. Multicast communication refers to the delivery of the same message from one source node to an arbitrary number of destination nodes. A tree-like routing scheme is not suitable for hardware-supported multicast in wormhole networks because it produces many headers for each message, drastically increasing the probability of a message being blocked. A path-based multicast routing model was proposed by Lin and Ni (1991) for multicomputers with 2D-mesh and hypercube topologies. In this model, messages are not replicated at intermediate nodes. This paper develops the theoretical background for the design of deadlock-free adaptive multicast routing algorithms. This theory is valid for wormhole networks using the path-based routing model. It is also valid when messages with a single destination and multiple destinations are mixed together. The new channel dependencies produced by messages with several destinations are studied. Also, two theorems are proposed, developing conditions to verify that an adaptive multicast routing algorithm is deadlock-free, even when there are cyclic dependencies between channels. As an example, the multicast routing algorithms of Lin and Ni are extended, so that they can take advantage of the alternative paths offered by the network     

AODV‐RIP: improved security in mobile ad hoc networks through route investigation procedure

Most routing protocols in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) place an emphasis on finding paths in dynamic networks without considering security. As a result, there are a number of attacks that can be used to manipulate the routing in MANET. A malicious node that sends a modified control message to an intermediate node can disturb the network using a control message. To solve this problem, we introduce AODV protocol with route investigation procedure (AODV‐RIP). It uses two additional control messages to defeat security attacks that can occur in AODV routing protocol. When an intermediate node that is on the path between the source node and the destination node receives a control message, it sends a Rroute Investigation Request (IREQ) message to the destination node in order to check the reliability of the control message. According to the existence of Route Investigation Reply (IREP), the intermediate node decides whether it transmits the control message to the source node or not. Consequently, the intermediate node that receives the control message confirms that it is using two additive control messages: IREQ and IREP. Through this investigation procedure, the source node can obtain a reliable path for transmitting data packets to an intentional destination node. The simulation results show an improvement in the packet delivery ratio and end‐to‐end delay at the expense of a moderate increase of the control message overhead compared with the current routing protocols. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Energy Based Random Repeat Trust Computation in Delay Tolerant Network

As the use of mobile devices continues to rise, trust administration will significantly improve security in routing the guaranteed quality of service (QoS) supply in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET) due to the mobility of the nodes. There is no continuance of network communication between nodes in a delay-tolerant network (DTN). DTN is designed to complete recurring connections between nodes. This approach proposes a dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) based on a feed-forward neural network (FFNN) and energy-based random repetition trust calculation in DTN. If another node is looking for a node that swerved off of its path in this situation, routing will fail since it won’t recognize it. However, in the suggested strategy, nodes do not stray from their pathways for routing. It is only likely that the message will reach the destination node if the nodes encounter their destination or an appropriate transitional node on their default mobility route, based on their pattern of mobility. The EBRRTC-DTN algorithm (Energy based random repeat trust computation) is based on the time that has passed since nodes last encountered the destination node. Compared to other existing techniques, simulation results show that this process makes the best decision and expertly determines the best and most appropriate route to send messages to the destination node, which improves routing performance, increases the number of delivered messages, and decreases delivery delay. Therefore, the suggested method is better at providing better QoS (Quality of Service) and increasing network lifetime, tolerating network system latency.     

An Adaptive Routing Algorithm for WK-Recursive Topologies

This paper presents an easy and straightforward routing algorithm for WK-recursive topologies. The algorithm, based on adaptive routing, takes advantage of the geometric properties of such topologies. Once a source node S and destination node D have been determined for a message communication, they characterize, at some level l, two virtual nodes and that respectively contain S but not D and D but not S. Such virtual nodes characterize other (where is the node degree for a fixed topology) virtual nodes of the same level that contain neither S nor D. Consequently, it is possible to locate triangles whose vertices are these virtual nodes with property to share the same path, called the self-routing path, directly connecting to . When the self-routing path is unavailable to transmit a message from S to D because of deadlock, fault, and congestion conditions, the routing strategy can follow what we call the triangle rule to deliver it. The proposed communication scheme has the advantage that 1) it is the same for all three conditions; 2) each node of a WK-recursive network, to transmit messages, does not require any information about their presence or location. Furthermore, this routing algorithm is able to tolerate up to faulty links. Received: July 19, 1998; revised May 17, 1999     

基于历史相遇间隔的机会网络路由协议

针对大多数机会网络路由协议在寻找端到端通信链路时不能很好地抓住节点社会性质的问题,提出一种基于历史相遇间隔(HICR) 协议的路由算法。HICR协议利用社会关系的特点,根据节点之间的历史相遇间隔判断它们的亲密程度,转发消息给离目的节点更亲近的节点,使得消息朝更靠近目的节点方向发送。仿真结果表明,该HICR协议在网络资源有限的的情况下,与Epidemic协议和Prophet协议相比,能获得更高的消息交付率。     

An optimal fault-tolerant routing algorithm for weighted bidirectional double-loop networks

Double-loop networks are widely used in computer networks. In this paper, we present an optimal message routing algorithm and an optimal fault-tolerant message routing algorithm for weighted bidirectional double-loop networks. The algorithms presented are novel, and they do not use routing tables. After a precalculation of O(log N) steps to determine network parameters, the algorithms can route messages using constant time at each node along the route. The algorithm presented can route messages in the presence of up to three faulty nodes or links. The fault-tolerant routing algorithm guarantees an optimal route in the presence of one node failure.     

基于信任机制的机会网络安全路由决策方法

提出一种基于信任机制的机会网络安全路由决策方法TOR,该方法在节点中引入信任向量的数据结构,记录节点携带消息能力的信任度.采用层状硬币模型和数字签名机制,在消息传递过程中将节点签名的转发证据动态捆绑到消息包上,依靠消息携带方式实现证据链的采集.周期性地将具有签名和时间戳的信任向量表通过洪泛方式反馈到网络中,在每个节点,迭代形成一个由多维行向量集组成的只读可信路由表TRT,作为选择下一跳节点和副本分割策略的决策依据.在节点相遇时,选择信任度比自身大的作为下一跳转发节点,消息沿着信任梯度递增的方向传递.实验结果表明：与现有路由算法相比,TOR算法能够有效抑制恶意节点和自私节点的破坏行为,且具有较高的消息传递成功率和较低的消息转发平均时延,对缓存空间和计算能力要求较低.     

Leapfrog: Optimal Opportunistic Routing in Probabilistically Contacted Delay Tolerant Networks

Delay tolerant networks (DTNs) experience frequent and long lasting network disconnection due to various reasons such as mobility, power management, and scheduling. One primary concern in DTNs is to route messages to keep the end-to-end delivery delay as low as possible. In this paper, we study the single-copy message routing problem and propose an optimal opportunistic routing strategy – Leapfrog Routing – for probabilistically contacted DTNs where nodes encounter or contact in some fixed probabilities. We deduce the iterative computation formulate of minimum expected opportunistic delivery delay from each node to the destination, and discover that under the optimal opportunistic routing strategy, messages would be delivered from high-delay node to low-delay node in the leapfrog manner. Rigorous theoretical analysis shows that such a routing strategy is exactly the optimal among all possible ones. Moreover, we apply the idea of Reverse Dijkstra algorithm to design an algorithm. When a destination is given, this algorithm can determine for each node the routing selection function under the Leapfrog Routing strategy. The computation overhead of this algorithm is only O(n ²) where n is the number of nodes in the network. In addition, through extensive simulations based on real DTN traces, we demonstrate that our algorithm can significantly outperform the previous ones.     

一种面向机会网络路由的最优停止决策方法

投递延迟是机会网络的一个重要指标,给定节点缓存和消息副本数目限制,如何选择合适的节点复制消息成为一个关键问题.提出一种基于最优停止理论的路由决策方法（OSDR）.OSDR 将每个时隙上所遇节点和目标节点的平均相遇时间看做一个随机变量,根据该随机变量的统计特性得到一个停止观察、复制消息的规则,该规则呈现简单的阈值结构,即当某个时隙上所遇节点和目标节点的平均相遇时间小于给定阈值时即复制消息. OSDR 可以在较小的相遇间隔和等待成本之间进行折衷,实现数学期望意义上的最小消息投递延迟.介绍了OSDR 的网络模型、最优停止规则的存在性证明过程以及计算方法.模拟实验结果表明,OSDR 相对其他方法,在投递成功率、投递延迟等方面具有明显优势.     

Near-optimal message routing and broadcasting in faulty hypercubes

A distributed routing algorithm for faulty hypercubes is described. This algorithm uses a directed depth-first approach to find a path between the sender and receiver of a message whenever at least one non-faulty path exists. We show that, when an arbitrary number of elements of the hypercube can be faulty, the algorithm always routes messages using fewer than 2N hops, whereN is the number of nodes in the hypercube. This performance is shown to be within a factor of two of the optimal worst-case routing efficiency. Through foult simulations, we show that, even when up to half of the elements in the cube are faulty, complete the analysis, we prove that our algorithm is deadlock-free. Finally, we present two extensions of the algorithm. The first uses local storage to reduce the overhead of the algorithm while the second allows reliable broadcasting in the presence of an arbitrary number of faults.Supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant CCR-9010547.Supported in part by the National Science Foundation Instrumentation Grant CDA-8820627.     

Routing in modular fault-tolerant multiprocessor systems

In this paper, we consider a class of modular multiprocessor architectures in which spares are added to each module to cover for faulty nodes within that module, thus forming a fault-tolerant basic block (FTBB). In contrast to reconfiguration techniques that preserve the physical adjacency between active nodes in the system, our goal is to preserve the logical adjacency between active nodes by means of a routing algorithm which delivers messages successfully to their destinations. We introduce two-phase routing strategies that route messages first to their destination FTBB, and then to the destination nodes within the destination FTBB. Such a strategy may be applied to a variety of architectures including binary hypercubes and three-dimensional tori. In the presence of f faults in hypercubes and tori, we show that the worst case length of the message route is min {σ+f, (K+1)σ}+c where σ is the shortest path in the absence of faults, K is the number of spare nodes in an FTBB, and c is a small constant. The average routing overhead is much lower than the worst case overhead     

Prevention of selective black hole attacks on mobile ad hoc networks through intrusion detection systems

A black hole attack on a MANET refers to an attack by a malicious node, which forcibly acquires the route from a source to a destination by the falsification of sequence number and hop count of the routing message. A selective black hole is a node that can optionally and alternately perform a black hole attack or perform as a normal node. In this paper, several IDS (intrusion detection system) nodes are deployed in MANETs in order to detect and prevent selective black hole attacks. The IDS nodes must be set in sniff mode in order to perform the so-called ABM (Anti-Blackhole Mechanism) function, which is mainly used to estimate a suspicious value of a node according to the abnormal difference between the routing messages transmitted from the node. When a suspicious value exceeds a threshold, an IDS nearby will broadcast a block message, informing all nodes on the network, asking them to cooperatively isolate the malicious node. This study employs ns2 to validate the effect of the proposed IDS deployment, as IDS nodes can rapidly block a malicious node, without false positives, if a proper threshold is set.     

Near-optimal broadcast in all-port wormhole-routed hypercubes usingerror-correcting codes

A new broadcasting method is presented for hypercubes with wormhole routing mechanism. The communication model assumed allows an n-dimensional hypercube to have at most n concurrent 110 communications along its ports. It further assumes a distance insensitivity of (n+1) with no intermediate reception capability for the nodes along the communication path. The approach is based on determination of the set of nodes (called stations) in the hypercube such that for any node in the network there is a station at distance of at most 1. Once stations are identified, parallel disjoint paths are formed from the source to all stations. The broadcasting is accomplished first by sending the message to all stations which will in turn inform the rest of the nodes of the message. To establish node-disjoint paths between the source node and all stations, we introduce a new routing strategy. We prove that multicasting can be done in one routing step as long as the number of destination nodes are at most n in an n-dimensional hypercube. The number of broadcasting steps using our routing is equal to or smaller than that obtained in an earlier work; this number is optimal for all hypercube dimensions n⩽12, except for n=10     

Multicast communication in multicomputer networks

Efficient routing of messages is a key to the performance of multicomputers. Multicast communication refers to the delivery of the same message from a source node to an arbitrary number of destination nodes. While multicast communication is highly demanded in many applications, most of the existing multicomputers do not directly support this service; rather it is indirectly supported by multiple one-to-one or broadcast communications, which result in more network traffic and a waste of system resources. The authors study routing evaluation criteria for multicast communication under different switching technologies. Multicast communication in multicomputers is formulated as a graph theoretical problem. Depending on the evaluation criteria and switching technologies, they study three optimal multicast communication problems, which are equivalent to the finding of the following three subgraphs: optimal multicast path, optimal multicast cycle, and minimal Steiner tree, where the interconnection of a multicomputer defines a host graph. They show that all these optimization problems are NP-complete for the popular 2D-mesh and hypercube host graphs. Heuristic multicast algorithms for these routing problems are proposed     

A Routing Algorithm with Candidate Shortest Path

An improved algorithm based on the next node routing principle is proposed in this paper.In this algorithm there is a column added to the classical routing table, in which the candidateshortest distance to the destination node is the entry. When a link fails, the new shortest path inthe nodes connected directly with the failure link can be found immediately (it is just thecandidate shortest path before failure). For all other nodes in which routing tables should bechanged, the required number of control messages and time for convergence are also less thanTajibnapis' algorithm and Predecessor algorithm. The message looping problem does not existin duplex loop networks and is radically improved in mesh networks. These statements areproved by the analysis and simulation in this paper. From the simulation results of a 30-nodemesh network, when one link goes down, the total number of control messages generatedduring convergence with this algorithm on the average is about 30% of Tajibnapis' algorithm.The iterations required is 50% of Tajibnapis' algorithm. The memory space required andcomputation complexity in nodes are almost the same as the two algorithms mentioned aboveand the algorithm implementation is as easy as well.     

Adaptive Fault-Tolerant Multicast in Hypercube Multicomputers

Fault-tolerant message routing mechanism is a key to the performance of reliable multicomputers. Multicast refers to the delivery of the same message from a source node to an arbitrary number of destination nodes. This paper presents two types of partially adaptive fault tolerant multicast algorithms. The Type A algorithm can deliver messages to all destinations through shortest paths if each fault-free node has at most one faulty neighbor. The Type B algorithm can deliver messages to all destinations if the total number of faulty links and faulty nodes is less than the dimension of the hypercube. The proposed algorithms have the following important features: they are distributed, they only require local information to determine the paths, and they need very little additional message overhead. The performance of the algorithms, measured by the traffic created by the communication, is very close to that in fault-free hypercubes.     

A dynamic fault-tolerant message routing algorithm for double-loop networks

Message routing is a fundamental function of a network, and fault-tolerance is an important tool to ensure the quality of service of a network. Assume that the network contains at most one faulty element and the algorithm does not know the faulty element in advance. We present an optimal fault-tolerant message routing algorithm for double-loop networks. We show that sending at most two messages with different routing strategies can ensure that one of the messages will be sent through a shortest path that avoids the faulty element. At each vertex, for any destination, the algorithm needs only constant time and space to determine the next vertex to which the message is to be sent.