Feeling Vulnerable? Disclosure of Vulnerability in the Charismatic Leadership Relationship

The current conceptual paper explores the role of vulnerability in the charismatic leadership relationship. “Sharing vulnerability” is defined as communicating an experience to followers, in which the leader was hurt emotionally, physically, or spiritually. We argue that sharing vulnerability may be an important mechanism through which leaders develop relationships with their followers and increase attributions of charisma. We also note several likely preconditions for sharing vulnerability, including humility, self‐awareness, and the courage to acknowledge imperfections. Further, we highlight that when leaders disclose emotions, it creates opportunities for followers to connect with leaders at an emotional level. Followers, in turn, may perceive increased psychological safety, be more willing to trust the leader, and be more motivated to engage in building a more egalitarian leader–follower relationship. Therefore, we propose sharing vulnerability as a potential avenue for building more compassionate and caring leader–follower relationships.     

The Comparative Influences of Transformational Leadership and Leader–Member Exchange on Follower Engagement

Scholars of transformational leadership and leader–member exchange (LMX) have argued that leaders are able to positively influence the job attitudes and behaviors of followers by different means. Whereas transformational leadership focuses on the leaders’ ability to transform followers through a global inspiring vision that encourages positive change among all employees, LMX highlights the importance of the leaders’ unique relationships with followers as the driver of positive attitudes and behaviors. Using field data gathered from 280 full‐time employees, the current research compared the influence of these two leadership styles on follower engagement. The results suggested that rather than the influence derived from inspirational leadership behaviors, it is employees’ unique relationship with their leader that creates follower engagement. Additionally, the results indicated that follower engagement mediates the relationship between leadership and key employee outcomes (i.e., organizational citizenship behavior [OCB] and employee turnover intentions). Implications to theory and practice are discussed.     

Leader–member exchange and follower creativity: the moderating roles of leader and follower expectations for creativity

We examined leader and follower expectations for creativity as moderators in the relationship between leader–member exchange (LMX) and follower creativity. The results of a survey among 193 leader–follower dyads from two high-tech companies in mainland China show that LMX positively relates to follower creativity, and that leader and follower expectations for creativity moderate this relationship. Specifically, the relationship between LMX and follower creativity is positive and significant when either leaders or followers, or both leaders and followers, set high rather than low expectations for creativity, with the highest level of follower creativity observed when leaders and followers congruently hold high creativity expectations. In contrast, the LMX–follower creativity relationship is blurred when leaders and followers congruently hold low expectations for creativity. We discuss the relevance of these results from theoretical and professional perspectives.     

Growing Followers: Exploring the Effects of Leader Humility on Follower Self‐Expansion,Self‐Efficacy,and Performance

Although the effectiveness of leader humility has been well documented, our understanding of how leader humility influences followers psychologically is limited. Surpassing a mere leader‐centric understanding of the leader influence process by more fully understanding how leadership behavior shapes followers psychologically has been identified as a critical need by leadership scholars. Drawing on self‐expansion theory, we argue that leader humility triggers followers’ self‐expansion and that this psychological change enhances followers’ self‐efficacy, which in turn contributes to followers’ task performance. We also argue that the relationship between leader humility and followers’ self‐expansion is strengthened when leaders and followers are similar in age and gender. Using a time‐lagged research design with responses from 256 leader–follower dyads, we found support for our proposed model. We discuss the theoretical implications for our findings and suggest areas for future research.     

The influence of follower cultural orientation on attitudinal responses towards transformational leadership: evidence from the Chinese hospitality industry

In addition to extending the empirical investigation of the relationship between transformational leadership and follower affective commitment to the Chinese hospitality industry, this study makes a theoretical contribution by investigating the influence of individually held cultural values on this relationship. Building on previous research which has examined whether collectivism moderates the transformational leadership/affective commitment relationship, this study investigates the moderating effects of two additional cultural value orientations, namely power distance and uncertainty avoidance. Hierarchical regression analysis was utilized to analyse survey data from 398 employees of four Chinese hotels in Zhejiang Province. In addition to finding a positive relationship between transformational leadership and affective commitment, data analysis revealed that followers low in power distance exhibited higher levels of affective commitment when working under a transformational leader than those high in power distance. In addition, followers high in uncertainty avoidance and collectivism exhibited greater commitment when working under a transformational leader than those low in uncertainty avoidance and collectivism. These findings clearly indicate the importance of within-country cultural differences to the effectiveness of leaders in the workplace.     

The influence of authentic leadership behaviors on trust and work outcomes of health care staff

A key element of a healthy work environment is trust: trust between staff and their leaders. Authentic leadership is proposed as the core of effective leadership needed to build trust because of its clear focus on the positive role modeling of honesty, integrity, and high ethical standards in the development of leader‐follower relationships. A model linking authentic leadership behaviors with trust in management, perceptions of supportive groups and work outcomes (including voice or speaking‐up behavior, self‐rated job performance, and burnout) using secondary analysis procedures was examined. The hypothesized model was tested using structural equation modeling in two samples of health care employees from a western Canadian cancer care agency: clinical care providers including nurses, pharmacists, physicians, and other professionals (N = 147) and nonclinical employees including administrative, support, and research staff (N = 188). Findings suggest that supportive leader behavior and trust in management are necessary for staff to be willing to voice concerns and offer suggestions to improve the workplace and patient care.     

Experienced affects in leader–subordinate relationships

This study explores the affects that leaders and subordinates experience during interaction. Two hundred and seventy leaders and five hundred and forty two subordinates recruited from the private and public sectors participated in the study. The data reveals that leader–subordinate relationships are strongly coloured by positive and negative moods, emotions and emotion-laden judgments, with four basic affective factors for both leaders and subordinates: recognition, frustration, violation and uncertainty. These factors correlate strongly with subordinates’ job satisfaction and the quality that they experienced in interaction with their immediate superiors. Correlations between these factors and subordinates’ life satisfaction were weak, suggesting that the affects are specific to the leader–subordinate relationship. Leaders’ affective experiences during interaction with subordinates seem to be less important. Correlations between the quality experienced by leaders in relationships with their subordinates, their job- and life satisfaction and their reported affects were weak or almost non-existent. The results underline the importance of focusing on both parties involved in leader–subordinate relationships, and suggest the need for a social interactionistic perspective in order to understand the leadership process. Experienced affects constitute prominent and complex facets of leader–subordinate relationships and should be studied in greater detail than has hitherto.     

Stackelberg equilibrium with multiple firms and setup costs

I provide conditions that guarantee that a Stackelberg game with a setup cost and an integer number of identical leaders and followers has an equilibrium in pure strategies. The main feature of the game is that when the marginal follower leaves the market the price jumps up, so that a leader’s payoff is neither continuous nor quasiconcave. To show existence I check that a leader’s value function satisfies the following single crossing condition: When the other leaders produce more the leader never accommodates entry of more followers. If demand is strictly logconcave, and if marginal costs are both non decreasing and not flatter than average costs, then a Stackelberg equilibrium exists. Besides showing existence I characterize the equilibrium set and provide a number of results that contribute to the applied literature. As the number of leaders increases, leaders produce more and eventually they deter entry. Leaders produce more than the Cournot best reply, but they may underinvest in entry deterrence. As the number of followers increases, leaders become more aggressive. When this number is large, if leaders can produce the limit quantity and at the same time have market power, then they deter entry.     

Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Harmful Leadership with a Moral Façade

The current qualitative study used narrative inquiry to explore white supremacist leadership and how it aligns with and differs from transformational, servant, and charismatic leadership theories. By examining the concepts and examples of leadership within the white supremacist movement, an image of harmful leadership begins to develop. These leaders were found to use leadership strategies such as creating purpose, community building, follower focus and meaning making, empowerment and motivation, and trust and respect to gain followers. These strategies were combined with detrimental approaches to leadership that included pursuing and abusing power, developing a sense of self‐importance, using fear, and having a sense of isolation that contributed to a harmful leadership style. Harmful leadership and its implications for leaders and followers in more mainstream organizations are explored.     

What Is Toxic Followership?

There has been some discussion on the subject of toxic followership, but it is as yet ill‐defined and deserves further evaluation and study. The current paper examines toxic followership using Kelley's typology of followers and provides potential methods of mitigating toxic followership. Just as toxic leaders harm organizations, so too can toxic followers. They both can cause good people to leave an organization, and put the organization's survival at risk.     

Agreeing to disagree? Explaining self–other disagreement on leadership behaviour

ABSTRACT

Leadership research tends to treat differences among ratings of the same leaders as measurement error. Our study makes such varying perceptions of leadership behaviour its main phenomenon of investigation. We conceptualize divergent leadership ratings based on the difference between managers’ self-ratings and team members’ assessments of leadership behaviour. Using data from three German public organizations on 51 teams and 190 leader–follower dyads, we find that divergent leadership ratings are a function of managers’ motivation, their use of managerial reflection routines, and team members’ personality. The findings point to the importance of using multisource feedback and developing managers’ self- and other-awareness.     

Contrasting Burns and Bass: Does the transactional‐transformational paradigm live up to Burns' philosophy of transforming leadership?

Both proponents and critics view the transactional‐transformational paradigm (Bass, 1997, 1998) as the brainchild of Burns' (1978) philosophy of transforming leadership. However, Burns (2003) has criticized the paradigm's narrow managerialist orientation and the claim that it is uniformly applicable to any culture and organization. In this article, I first summarize and articulate Burns' (1978, 2003) and Bass' (1985, 1998) approaches toward leadership, then compare them by using a new four‐dimensional framework. Extending previous research (Yukl, 2006), the framework represents a useful tool for detecting the commonalities and differences between leadership theories with respect to the core dimensions, categories, and aspects of leadership. My inspection indicates that Burns' and Bass' conceptions stem from disparate contexts and differ in their applicability. Thus, Burns' (1978) ideas stem from political movements ideally characterized by mutual quest for shared meaning and active collaboration between leaders and followers. Conversely, Bass' (1985) approach springs from military training in which leaders transfer existing knowledge to followers and stimulate their activity by using a variety of tools from inspirational motivation to individualized consideration. This study has important practical implications as it delineates the boundary conditions of the transactional‐transformational paradigm and warns against its uncritical adoption in incongruent leadership contexts.     

Introduction

Leadership is under review and open for criticism in ways not seen for some time. Where is leadership when we need it, we ask? Where are the leaders who can solve our problems? Moreover, change is the new constant, and we need leaders who are prepared to embrace change and ambiguity and help followers deal with change. Sometimes it feels like we are in permanent whitewater. Where are the leaders who can deal with the ever‐changing landscape and help us move to a positive future? Many of them are among us. They are the up‐and‐coming emerging leaders of Generations X and Y. This symposium focuses on these leaders of the future—the emerging leaders among us. What challenges do they face? What kind of leaders do they want to be? How do we best prepare them? The five articles that follow present a variety of views for our consideration, and the authors hope to start a boarder conversation about the next generation of leaders and their leadership challenges. Mhatre and Conger stress that authentic leadership principles are needed in workplaces now and in the future. They remind us that organizations are often composed of individuals born during different times, circumstances,and situations, thereby creating challenges for leaders in those organizations. Current research related to Gens X and Y, cited by the authors, highlights some of the generational differences and preferences. The authors see that the differences could create a “fertile ground for intraorganizational conflict, especially differences in how to manage and work within changing organizational climates.” One potential solution, according to Mhatre and Conger, can be found in the four components of authentic leadership principles: self‐awareness, internalized moral perspective, balanced processing, and relational transparency. If authentic leadership is in place, Gens X and Y can lead authentically, thereby facilitating sustainable and positive work environments. The authors predict positive results for organizations when authentic leadership is in place. Carucci and Epperson also focus on cross‐generational relationships and voice their concern with the negative consequences of labeling various age groups as Millennials, Boomers, Xers, Yers—labels that emphasize the divide. What we need, they argue, is less polarization and more connections. The article explores what it means for leaders of multigenerations to thrive together in partnership. They discuss the “elusive contest between the legacy of incumbent leaders and the potential of emerging leaders and ask us to consider mutual vulnerability as common ground.” They also summarize research on mentoring that looks at the gap between the numbers of emerging leaders who are mentored compared with the large numbers who desire mentors and ongoing relationships. The research follows up on earlier work on this topic explored in their books Leadership Divided and Bridging the Leadership Divide. Their article provides a personal case study demonstrating how generations can come together in partnership, thereby strengthening their organizations as well as the individuals involved. Perucci follows up on some of the themes highlighted by Carucci and Epperson as well as Mhatre and Conger and focuses on the way Millennials (Gen Y) are shaping organizations in the 21st century. Perucci reminds us that as we consider the implications of multiple generations working within the same organization, we must emphasize the crosscultural dimensions of intragenerational leadership. Globalization is reshaping leadership not only at the vertical level (multiple generations working side by side), but also horizontally (communication and technology reshaping the way Millennials interact across national boundaries). He suggests that just as leadership involves leaders, followers, and shared goals, successful leadership also requires an awareness of leading across cultures. He argues that effective leaders will be those who learn to work together “across boundaries in order to solve complex global problems.” Penney's article, “Voices of the Future: Leadership for the 21st Century,” focuses on both Generations X and Y (primarily X) and explores how those emerging leaders see leadership in the future and what kind of leaders they want to be. What leadership qualities/behaviors do they see as important? Themes of collaboration and inclusiveness are important to these emerging leaders, and they place high values on trust and integrity. Because they value inclusiveness, they work more easily across racial, ethnic, and gender differences and lines than did previous generations. The article also discusses what organizations need to do to attract and retain Generations X and Y. More flexible work arrangements are important as is having business organizations committed to corporate social responsibility and green initiatives. The findings come from the recent book Next Generation Leadership: Insights from Emerging Leaders (Penney & Neilson 2010). Tulgan and his colleagues at RainmakerThinking, Inc., have been conducting interviews with young people in the workplace for two decades. His article has a theme similar to Penney's in that he discusses ways to develop new leaders, primarily Generation Y. He addresses issues such as, how do we help them step into leadership roles successfully? He also addresses the question of why some of them are reluctant to take on supervisory roles. The article offers specific suggestions about ways to guide young professionals to prepare them for assuming leadership roles. He suggests that senior leaders should give frequent feedback to the top performers in Gen Y rather than leaving them on their own. He argues that too often we ignore high performers as we focus time and effort on the not‐so‐successful ones. According to Tulgan, more generous reward systems and hospitable work conditions are needed to retain high performers. In addition, he wants senior leaders to do more to help Gen Yers establish their credibility when they are given roles of increased responsibility. Conclusions There is a sense of optimism in play as you read these articles. Although there are differences found between Generations X and Y, overall the next generation of leaders also share some commonalities. They are more collaborative and inclusive than previous generations. And these emerging leaders are bringing a fresh approach to leadership and moving us away from the leader as “hero” or all‐knowing source of power and influence. Their desire for collaboration can help bridge the generation gap between Boomers and young professionals. Each brings particular strengths to their organizations, so as they work together, stronger institutions can be the result. Integrity is also important to emerging leaders, and authentic leadership behaviors hold much promise for strengthening our organizations. These emerging leaders can work well across cultures and are more comfortable with inclusion and diversity than those of previous generations. The authors provide several suggestions for working with and retaining young professionals so that their leadership skills are strengthened. Emerging leaders need support and honest feedback; they want reward systems that differentiate; they request flexible work arrangements. They also want to see corporate social responsibility in place in the business world. Emerging leaders of Generations X and Y are ready to assume leadership roles, but many do not want to lead as they have been led. We must do all we can as senior leaders, as academics, and as colleagues to prepare them for these responsibilities. As we pass the torch to a new generation of leaders, let's be certain they are well equipped for the task and ready to lead.     

广义Stackelberg市场上企业横向兼并获利性研究

基于广义Stackelberg寡头垄断市场,研究企业横向兼并的获利性和社会福利问题。结果表明,一个领头企业与一个跟随企业之间总是存在兼并动机,而领头企业之间很少存在兼并动机;当边际生产成本的差异程度较大时,两个跟随企业之间总是存在兼并动机;兼并导致的企业利润增加是以社会福利下降为代价的。     

仆式领导的必然性研究

自上个世纪格林利夫提出"仆人式领导"概念以来,"仆人式领导"成为众多学者的研究对象,并在实践中得到广泛的应用。从历史和文化两个方面研究证明,领导理念在当代管理阶段经历了交易型领导和变革性领导以后,领导的关注焦点从组织转变为下属,必然会过渡到仆人领导理念阶段。这一变动趋势以及仆人领导理念对我们现时有很大的借鉴意义。     

The relationship of leader psychological capital and follower psychological capital,job engagement and job performance: a multilevel mediating perspective

Building on the body of positive organizational behavior research, this study examines the relationships between leader psychological capital, follower psychological capital, job engagement and job performance (task performance and contextual performance). Data were collected in three phases from multiple sources involving 60 leaders and 319 followers from a large telecom company in Taiwan. Hierarchical linear modeling results revealed that leaders' psychological capital was positively related to their job engagement through the mediation of followers' psychological capital. Furthermore, the results indicated that job engagement mediates the relationship between followers' psychological capital and their job performance (task performance and contextual performance). We discuss the implications and limitations of these findings and directions for future research.     

Leader development in work and volunteer contexts: Expected practice and unexpected opportunities

Our knowledge and practice of leader development is grounded mostly in leadership at work, with little focus on the common experience of leading both work and in a volunteer context. To better understand how leaders develop as a result of leading not only in work but also in volunteer roles, we interviewed 40 leaders and sought to understand their motivation to lead in multiple domains, their process of development, and their outcomes of development. Our findings show that leading in multiple domains – at work and in volunteering contexts – plays an important role in leader development. Specifically, leaders develop through both expected practices (such as learning and developing new skills) and through unexpected opportunities that represent new opportunities to lead, exposure to new people and ideas, and new perspectives. Further, as a result of leading in both work and volunteering contexts, leaders reported developing a more integrated sense of themselves as “whole persons” as they engaged in both expected and unexpected development. We discuss ways in which a volunteering-based approach to leader development may open other important avenues for leader development beyond intentional, workplace-based approaches.     

Inspirational leadership,positive mood,and team innovation: A moderated mediation investigation into the pivotal role of professional salience

Multidisciplinary teams are increasingly advocated for in healthcare policy consequent to their capacity to develop innovative solutions to seemingly intractable service and care challenges. Recent arguments that inspirational leadership styles may foster innovation in multidisciplinary teams point to their potential value in this effort. However, inconsistency in the capacity of such leaders to engender innovation highlights the need to understand the mechanisms and boundary conditions that determine when such leadership generates positive effects. We argue that follower positive mood acts to mediate the path between inspirational leadership and innovation and may account for its variable effects. By increasing positive team mood, inspirational leaders can potentially bring about more flexible thinking and enhance innovation but can also increase reliance on less effortful information processing, undermining innovative potential. In an effort to address the dilemma posed by these contrasting effects, we propose that professional salience acts as an important boundary condition of this relationship such that only when profession is salient do inspirational leaders enhance multidisciplinary team innovation through positive mood. An analysis of survey data from 60 UK‐based multidisciplinary healthcare teams, investigating the inspirational leadership of practice‐based innovation, supports our moderated mediation model. Finally, the implications for HRM are considered, specifically for leader development and work team design.     

The influence of leadership behavior on employee work-family outcomes: A review and research agenda

Scholarly inquiries into the prominent role that leaders play in influencing their followers' work-family experiences have flourished in recent decades. Despite this encouraging progress, researchers have criticized the current state of the literature, lamenting that the study of leader behaviors in the work-family literature is either incomplete or oversimplified. To move the field forward, we conducted a systematic review of the literature to take stock of what we know, identify what is still unknown, and chart a path forward for future research. We organize the literature linking leadership to employees' work-family experience based on a four-category framework of leader behavior (task, relationship, change, and ethical/unethical). We summarize what effects leader behaviors may have on their followers, how such effects occur, and the boundary conditions of these effects. We conclude our review by identifying both theoretical and methodological gaps that can inform future leadership research in the work-family domain.     

Leadership quality and follower affect: A study of U.S. presidential candidates

Using the tripartite model of attitude structure as a conceptual basis, this article investigates voter attitudes toward presidential candidates, including cognitive and affective assessments of these leaders as well as behavioral intentions and voting behavior. Data collected from the seven most recent U.S. presidential elections were used to compare Democratic and Republican Party candidates who were successful in securing votes to those who were unsuccessful. Here, follower perceptions of leader intelligence, feelings of pride and hope, as well as feelings of fear and anger were found to be statistically different between the two groups. Additionally, regression analysis using follower assessments of candidates' leadership quality, as dependent upon certain perceptual traits of that leader, are presented. Candidates perceived to be higher in intelligence, considered to possess stronger degrees of inspirational quality, and judged more “likeable,” in terms of generating stronger degrees of positive follower affect and lower degrees of negative follower affect, are considered better quality leaders. Followers' perceptions of these traits are found to be key predictors of whether that follower will consider a leader to be of high quality.