Children's development of alcohol use norms: Contributions of parent and sibling norms, children's temperaments, and parent–child discussions.

This study explored the unique contributions of children's temperaments, parents' and siblings' alcohol use norms, and parent–child discussions to 10- to 12-year-old children's alcohol use norms. Independent assessments of each family member's alcohol use norms, mother- and father-reported child temperament assessments, and child reports of the frequency and nature of parent–child discussions were obtained for 171 families. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed a moderational effect: Children whose temperaments placed them at greater risk for alcohol problems in adolescence and early adulthood reported alcohol use norms that became more liberal as other family members' norms became liberal. Frequent and bidirectional parent–child discussions were linked with less liberal alcohol use norms. The results support a transactional model of norm development that features interplay among children's temperaments and family processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adaptability and cohesion of dyadic relationships in families with developmentally disabled children.

In 93 families with developmentally disabled children, mothers, fathers, and 1 nondisabled sibling rated the cohesion and adaptability of family dyads using D. A. Cole and A. E. Jordan's (1989) modified version of Olson's Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scale (D. H. Olson et al, 1985). With these multiple perspectives of multiple relationships, multitrait-multimethod confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the convergent and discriminant validity of dyadic adaptability and cohesion. Three distinct cohesion traits representing the mother–father, father–child, and mother–child relationships were confirmed. In contrast, mother–child and father–child adaptability traits were highly correlated, suggesting a 2-trait model: parent–child adaptability and mother–father adaptability. The importance of this methodology for research on families with developmentally disabled children is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictors of domestically violent men's aggression toward children: A prospective study.

This research examines predictors of domestically violent men's aggression toward children after the children and their mothers sought help at an emergency shelter for domestic violence victims. Participants were 62 women who had sought refuge at a domestic violence shelter and who had at least one child between 4 and 9 years old. During their shelter stay, women provided data on partner–child aggression that occurred before shelter entry. After leaving the shelter, they also provided data on postshelter partner–mother intimate partner violence (IPV), children's postshelter contacts with their mothers' partners, and postshelter partner–child aggression on 5 occasions after their shelter departure (4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 months postshelter). Consistent with our hypotheses, the level of partner–child aggression before the family entered the shelter, the level of partner–mother IPV after shelter departure, and the frequency of children's contacts with the partners after shelter departure each predicted postshelter partner–child aggression. Clinical and policy implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Social Relations Model analysis of parent and child play.

Introduces the Social Relations Model (Kenny & LaVoie, 1984) as a new approach for understanding reciprocity during parent–child and sibling play. 32 12-month-old infants and their 3- to 4-year-old siblings were videotaped during separate dyadic sessions in a laboratory playroom with their mothers, their fathers, and each other. Each partner's play was coded using a detailed classification system consisting of six discrete play behaviors. Multivariate analyses indicated that mother–child dyads engaged in more instructive play than father–child dyads, although both parents demonstrated age-appropriate adjustments in their play with their two children. Infants and preschoolers engaged in more elaborate types of play with their parents than with their less socially competent siblings. Social Relations Model analyses revealed that the unique adjustments that family members made to one another outweighed family members' general tendencies to behave in particular ways and the partners' tendencies to elicit particular behaviors from family members. Furthermore, these analyses suggested that parents may be primarily responsible for much of the structuring occurring in children's early social interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital conflict and the quality of young children's peer play behavior: The mediating and moderating role of parent–child emotional reciprocity and attachment security.

Parent–child attachment security and dyadic measures of parent–child positive and negative emotional reciprocity were examined as possible mediators and moderators of the connection between marital conflict and children's peer play behavior. Eighty parents were observed in a laboratory play session with their 15- to 18-month-old child. Subsequently, at 36 months children were observed interacting with peers at their child care setting. Connections between marital conflict and children's positive peer interaction were mediated by mother–child attachment security, mother–child positive emotional reciprocity, and father–child negative emotional reciprocity. Connections between marital conflict and children's negative peer interaction were mediated by mother–child positive emotional reciprocity and father–child attachment security. Parent–child attachment security and negative emotional reciprocity emerged as important moderators of the connection between marital conflict and children's peer play behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations among family interaction patterns, classroom self-restraint, and academic achievement in preadolescent boys.

Relations among observed family interaction patterns, preadolescent boys' classroom self-restraint, and academic achievement were studied in a sample of 65 intact families. In contrast to previous work in this area, children's social adjustment was introduced as a potential mechanism that mediates the relations between parent–child interactions and academic performance. Correlational results showed significant relations between achievement and all parent–child interaction scores except mother–son hostility. However, regression analyses suggested that the association between father–son interactions and achievement is mediated almost entirely by sons' restraint, whereas the relationships between mother–son interactions and achievement are not. Observed mother–father hostility also appears to be an indirect predictor of sons' academic achievement by way of its association with sons' restraint. These findings are especially important in that they identify social competence in the form of behavioral self-restraint as a noncognitive mediator between the quality of family functioning and academic achievement during early adolescence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Value transmissions between fathers, mothers, and adolescent and emerging adult children: The role of the family climate.

Using structural equation modeling, this study investigates father–child, mother–child, and father–mother transmissions on “work-as-duty” and “hedonism” across a 5-year period when children traverse late adolescence and emerging adulthood (N = 402 families). We found bidirectional father–child and child-to-mother transmissions on work-as-duty and child-to-father and bidirectional father–mother transmissions on hedonism. In addition, we examined whether family adaptability and cohesion influence these value transmissions. Father-to-child transmission on work-as-duty occurred regardless of family system levels, whereas child-to-parent transmissions on work-as-duty occurred only within more structured families. Furthermore, a more connected family climate tended to facilitate inter- and intragenerational value transmissions, but multiple-group analyses did not reveal strong evidence. All in all, this study showed that value socialization in the family is not a one-way-traffic process with parents solely influencing their children. Late adolescents and emerging adults also serve to socialize their parents and parents socialize each other. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting parent–child interactions from children's activity level.

Examined the relationship between children's activity level and parent–child (P–C) interactions in 117 preschool children and their parents. Four P–C combinations (mother–daughter, father–daughter, mother–son, and father–son) were studied. Using R. Q. Bell's (see record 1968-08747-001) conceptualization of upper and lower limit parental control behavior, it was predicted that P–C interactions involving active children would be marked by more strife and conflict than P–C interactions involving more quiescent, less active children. Parents of highly active children tended to intrude physically and could be described as getting into power struggles and competition with their children. Impatience or hostility toward active children was observed in parents of all P–C pairings except the father–son combination. In contrast, interactions involving less active children were generally peaceful and harmonious. (28 ref)-008 6504 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affective quality of the mother–child relationship: Longitudinal consequences for children's school-relevant cognitive functioning.

This article reports longitudinal data on the link between the affective quality of the mother–child relationship and school-relevant cognitive performance. Sixty-seven mothers and their children participated in the first (preschool) phase of the study; 47 were included in a follow-up when the children were 12 years of age. The affective quality of the mother–child relationship when the child was 4 years of age was significantly correlated with mental ability at age 4, school readiness at ages 5–6, IQ at age 6, and school achievement at age 12. These associations remained significant when the contributions of maternal IQ, socioeconomic status (SES), and children's mental ability at age 4 were taken into account. Our findings suggest that affective relationships may influence cognitive growth in three ways: (a) by affecting parent's tendency to engage and support children in solving problems; (b) by affecting children's social competence and, consequently, the flow of information between children and adults; and (c) by affecting children's exploratory tendencies, hence their willingness to approach and persist in tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Victimization by peers: Associations with children's reports of mother–child interaction.

Children who are chronically victimized by peers are at risk for personal difficulties. This study examined whether victimization is associated with mother–child interaction at home. Preadolescents (N?=?184; mean age?=?11.7 years) reported on their mother"s child-rearing practices and on how they cope during conflicts with their mother. Peers reported on victimization at school. Sex-specific links between perceived family interaction and peer victimization were found. For boys, victimization was associated with perceived maternal overprotectiveness, especially when boys reported reacting with fear during mother–child conflict. For girls, victimization was associated with perceived maternal rejection and with girls" reports of aggressive coping during mother–child conflict. Results support the theory that parenting that hinders children"s development of gender-salient competencies (autonomy for boys and communion for girls) places children at risk for peer victimization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessment of cohesion and adaptability in component family dyads: A question of convergent and discriminant validity.

In the assessment of family cohesion and adaptability, researchers typically overlook the possibility that different components of the family may be more cohesive or adaptable than others. This potential problem is often compounded by monomethodism, reliance on a single source of information. Using a multitrait-mutimethod approach, we obtained three measures of cohesion and adaptability in three component dyads of relatively healthy families. Mothers, fathers, and college students reported about cohesion and adaptability in the mother–student, father–student, and mother–father relationships. Using confirmatory factor analysis, we found significant differences in the convergent validities of mothers', fathers', and students' reports. Furthermore, significant differences emerged among the correlations between mother–father, mother–student, and father–student cohesion (and adaptability), which suggests that noteworthy differences exist between family subsystems on these constructs. Implications for assessment strategies in marital and family counseling are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of early maternal employment on toddlers, mothers, and fathers.

Investigated the effects of early maternal employment on toddler development and mothers' and fathers' parenting styles using a family system orientation. The 75 families with firstborn 20-mo-olds varied in maternal employment status (nonemployed, part-, and full-time). Observations were conducted of qualitative dimensions of parent–child relationships (toddler–mother and toddler–father attachment and child–parent problem-solving behavior), quantitative dimensions of family time allocation, and parental childrearing attitudes. Each mother had been employed outside the home prior to the baby's birth. 24 mothers had not been employed since the birth of their children; 23 mothers were employed part-time. Results indicate that maternal employment was not related to toddler outcomes (security of attachment or problem-solving behavior). It was related to the amount of time mothers spent with their children and to some childrearing attitudes and behaviors of fathers and mothers. Findings highlight the importance of examining direct (mother–child) and indirect (father–child) effects in the study of early maternal employment and the ability of families to adapt to a variety of lifestyles. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A genetically informed study of associations between family functioning and child psychosocial adjustment.

Research has documented associations between family functioning and offspring psychosocial adjustment, but questions remain regarding whether these associations are partly due to confounding genetic factors and other environmental factors. The current study used a genetically informed approach, the Children of Twins design, to explore the associations between family functioning (family conflict, marital quality, and agreement about parenting) and offspring psychopathology. Participants were 867 twin pairs (388 monozygotic; 479 dizygotic) from the Twin and Offspring Study in Sweden, their spouses, and children (51.7% female; M = 15.75 years). The results suggested associations between exposure to family conflict (assessed by the mother, father, and child) and child adjustment were independent of genetic factors and other environmental factors. However, when family conflict was assessed using only children's reports, the results indicated that genetic factors also influenced these associations. In addition, the analyses indicated that exposure to low marital quality and agreement about parenting was associated with children's internalizing and externalizing problems and that genetic factors also contributed to the associations of marital quality and agreement about parenting with offspring externalizing problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Partner aggression and children's externalizing problems: Maternal and partner warmth as protective factors.

This research examined maternal and partner warmth as moderators of the relation between men's intimate partner aggression and children's externalizing problems. Participants were 157 mothers and their children (ages 7-9 years). Results indicate that maternal and partner warmth each moderated the relation between men's intimate partner aggression and children's externalizing problems. Partner-to-mother aggression was positively associated with child reports of externalizing problems at lower, but not higher, levels of maternal warmth. Similarly, partner-to-mother aggression was positively associated with mother reports of girls', but not boys', externalizing problems at lower, but not higher, levels of maternal warmth. On the other hand, the moderating effect of partner warmth was in the opposite direction and was found only with child-reported externalizing problems. Increased levels of partner-to-mother aggression related positively to child-reported externalizing problems when partners were higher, but not lower, in warmth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital behavior and the security of preschooler–parent attachment relationships.

Longitudinal and concurrent relations among positive and negative marital behaviors in 2 contexts and preschoolers' security of attachment were examined for 53 families. At 6 months postpartum, couples were observed in their homes during couple discussion and family play. At 3 years, parents completed the Attachment Q-Set (E. Waters, 1987); marital and parenting behavior was also observed. Interparental hostility during family play at 6 months predicted less secure preschooler–mother attachment. Greater marital conflict at 3 years was associated with less security with mother and father, whereas positive marital engagement at 3 years was associated with more secure child-father attachment. Mothers' parenting partially explained the linkages between marital behavior and child–mother attachment. These results highlight the impact of positive and negative marital behaviors on children's abilities to use their parents as a secure base. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender, power, and violence: Assessing the family stereotypes of the children of batterers.

Two hundred twenty one children, ages 6 to 12 years, in families with varying levels of domestic violence rated how much they agreed with 40 items concerning stereotyped beliefs about power and violence in the family. Varimax analyses yielded 4 factors; Male Power, Female Power, Violence Privilege, and Family Autonomy. Internal reliability and construct validity for the Family Stereotypes Card Sort were evaluated. Significant positive associations were found among physical violence and emotional abuse reported by the mother and family role stereotyping in the child. Family role stereotyping and beliefs in the acceptability of family violence differed by gender and ethnic minority status and varied by age and income but not by the level of adjustment problems in the child. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physical aggression toward boys and girls in families characterized by the battering of women.

Forty-eight families (mothers and children) participated in a study on physical aggression toward boys and girls in households characterized by the battering of women. In each family, the mother had sought shelter because of relationship violence and had a son and daughter between 4 and 14 years. Mothers completed measures of physical marital violence directed at themselves, aggression toward children, and children's externalizing behavior problems. Older children completed measures of aggression directed at themselves. Results indicated that child gender moderates the relationship between the battering of women and aggression toward children. In families characterized by "more extreme" battering, boys were more often victims of aggression than girls, boys exhibited more externalizing problems than girls, and gender differences in externalizing problems helped account for the differential aggression directed at boys and girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of adjustment among children of battered women.

Children exposed to interparental violence have been characterized by an array of psychological problems, but findings regarding the precise nature of these problems have been inconsistent. This study used cluster analysis to determine whether distinct patterns of adjustment could be identified in 228 8- to 14-year-old children residing in battered women's shelters. Five such patterns emerged: multiproblem–externalizing, multiproblem–internalizing, externalizing, mild distress, and no problems reported. This solution was cross-validated in independent halves of the sample and was similar for boys and girls. Differences among the clusters on relevant family and demographic variables were examined, and it was found that the clusters could be distinguished on the basis of the frequency of children's exposure to interparental violence, parent–child aggression, and children's appraisals of interparental conflict. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family members' uncertainty about parental chronic illness: the relationship of hemophilia and HIV infection to child functioning

Examined the relationships among parental and child uncertainty about fathers' illnesses and child internalizing problems. Participants included 65 families in which the father had hemophilia, approximately one half of the fathers also were HIV infected. Within each family, respondents included the father, the mother and one child. Outcome variables included both self- and parent-reported child internalizing behaviors. Results indicated that family members' illness uncertainty was intercorrelated, that child uncertainty about the father's illness predicted both anxiety and depressive symptoms in the child, and that mother's uncertainty predicted child-reported anxiety beyond the child's uncertainty.